;ru
HUNGARY
TRANSYLVANIA
[TJNGARY
TRANSYLVANIA;
WITH REMARKS ON THEIR CONDITION,
SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMICAL.
BY JOHN PAGET, ESQ.
Beata Ungheria ! so non so lascia
Piu malmenare.
DANTK.
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.
IN TWO VOLUMES.— VOL. II.
1
NEW EDITION. |)
4-
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1855.
LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWKS AND SONS, STAMFORD STKKET,
AND CHARING CROSS.
CONTENTS
OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
CHAPTER I.
DANUBE FROM PEST TO MOLDOVA.
The Zriny. — The Country below Pest. — Waste Lands. —
An Accident. — Mohacs. — Peterwardein. — Karlowitz. — The
Drave. — Semlin. — The Crusaders. — The Save. — Belgrade. —
Danube Navigation. — The Border Guard: their Laws and Or-
ganization. — The Theiss and Temes. — Semendria. — George
Dosa. — Danube Scenery. — Servia, and Russian Policy. Page 1
CHAPTER II.
DANUBE FROM MOLDOVA TO OR30VA.
Babakay. — The Vultures. — Golumbatz. — St. George's Cavern^
— The Rapids. — First Roman Inscription. — Kazan. — New Road.
— Sterbeczu Almare. — Trajan's Tablet. — Via Trajana. — Orsova.
- New Orsova. — The Crusaders. — Visit to the Pasha. — The
Quarantine. — The Iron Gates. — Trajan's Bridge — its History and
Construction. — Valley of the Cserna. — Turkish Aqueduct. —
Mehadia — its Baths and Bathers. . . . . 36
CHAPTER III.
BANAT.
Szegedin. — The Banat — its History. — Fertility. — State of
Agriculture. — Climate. — Mines. — Population. — Prosperous
Villages. — The Peasant and the Bishop of Agram. — The New
Urbarium. — The Kammeral Administration. — Temesvar. —
Roads. — Baron Wenkheim's Reforms. — A Wolf Hunt. . 71
VOL. ii. a 3
vi CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
THE VALLEY OF HATSZEG.
Valley of the Temes.— Wallack Beauty.— Ovid's Tower.— Iron
Works at Ruskberg. — Effects of regular Work and regular Pay.
— Reformers in Hungary. — Iron Bridge. — Iron-gate Pass, be-
tween Hungary and Transylvania. — Hospitality. — Varhely the
Ulpia Trajana of the Romans. — The Dacians under their
native kings — conquered by Trajan. — Wallack Language like
the Italian. — Wallacks of Dacian, not Roman, Origin. —
Roman Remains at Varhely. — Amphitheatre. — Mosaics. Page 94
CHAPTER V.
VALLEY OF HATSZEG.
Demsus. — The Leiter-Wagen. — Roman Temple — its Form and
probable History. — Paintings in Wallack Churches. — Wallack
Priests and their Wives. — Russian Influence over the Mem-
bers of the Greek Church. — Origin of the United Greek Church.
— Religious Oppression. — Education of the Greek Priesthood. —
Village of Varhely. — The Wallack Women. — Wallacks and
Scotchmen.— Wallack Vices and Wallack Virtues.— The Devil's
Dancers. — Our Host's Family. — Household Arrangements. —
The Buffalo 119
CHAPTER VI.
ROUTE TO KLATJSENBURG.
Valley of Hdtszeg.— Wallack Gallantry.— Transylvanian Tra-
velling.— Arrival at Vayda Hunyad. — The Gipsy Girl. — Hun-
yadi Janos. — Castle of Hunyad. — The painted Tower — A Depu-
tation.— A Rogue found out — Deva. — Valley of the Maros. —
H taken for a Spy. — Visit to the Mines of Nagy Ag. — Po-
liteness from a Stranger. — Transylvanian Post-office. — Sandstone
oftheFelek. 153
CONTENTS. vii
CHAPTER VII.
TRANSYLVANIA. HISTORY AND POLITICS.
Transylvania — its population. — Settlement of the Szeklers —
of the Magyars — of the Saxons — under Woiwodes. — Zapolya. —
Native Princes. — Bethlen Gabor. — Aristocratic Democracy. —
Union with Austria. — Diploma Leopoldinum. — Confirmed by
Maria Theresa. — Actual Form of Government. — Constitution in-
fringed.— Opposition. — Baron Wesselenyi. — County Meetings. —
Grievances. — General Vlasits. — Diet of 1834. — Archduke Fer-
dinand.— History of the Diet. — Violent Dissolution. — Moral
Opposition Page 181
CHAPTER VIII.
NORTH OF TRANSYLVANIA.
Transylvanian Roads. — A Solitary Inn. — Drag. — Zsibo. —
Horse-breeding. — Old Transylvanian Breed. — Count Banffy's Stud.
— English Breed.— Baron Wesselenyi's Stud. — A Cross. — Babolna
Arabs. — Interesting Experiment. — Rakotzy. — Robot. — Ride to
Hadad. — The Vintage. — Transylvanian Wines. — Oak Woods.
— Scotch Farmer. — A Reformer's Trials. — State of the Pea-
santry.— Urbarium. — Stewards. — Establishments of the Nobles.
— Social Anomalies. — Old Fashions. — The Dinner. — Drive to
Nagy Banya. — Gipsies. — Gold Mines. — Private Speculations. —
Return. . . . . . . .211
CHAPTER IX.
THE SALT MINES AND GOLD MINES.
Horse Fair at Klausenburg. — Moldavian Horses. — Cholera in
Klausenburg. — Thorda. — Valley of the Aranyos. — Miklos and
his Peccadilloes. — A Transylvanian Invitation. — The Wallack
viii CONTENTS.
Judge.— Thoroczko. — The Unitarian Clergyman. — St. Gyorgy.
— A Transylvanian Widow. — Peasants' Cottages. — The Cholera.
—A Lady's Road.— Thordai Hasadek.— The Salt Mines of Sza-
mos Ujvar.— The Salt Tax Karlsburg.— The Cathedral and
krumme Peter. — Wallack Charity. — Zalatua. — Abrud Banya. —
The Gold Mines of Verb's Patak.— Csetatie. — Detonata. — Return.
— College of Nagy Enyed. — English Fund.— System of Educa-
tion. . Page 255
CHAPTER X.
THE SZEKLER8 AND THE SZEKLER-LAND.
The Szeklers — their ancient Rights and modern Position. —
The Mezoseg. — Maros Vasarhely. — Chancellor Teleki and his
Library. — A Szekler Inn. — The Szekler Character. — Salt
Rocks at Szovata. — The Cholera and the spare Bed. — Miseria
cum aceto. — Glories of Grock. — Salt-Mines of Parayd. — Ud-
varhely. — St. Pal. — Excursion to Almas. — Superstition. — The
Cavern. — Sepsi St. Gyorgy. — Kesdi Vasarhely. — The French
Brewer. — The Szekler Schools. — Szekler Hospitality. — The
Biidos.— The Harom-Szek. 312
CHAPTER XI.
THE SAXONS AND THE SAXON LAND.
The Saxon Land.— Settlement of the Saxons— their Charter.
— Political and Municipal Privileges. — Saxon Character. — School
Sickness. — Kronstadt. — A Hunting Party. — Smuggling from
Wallachia. — The Bear and the General.— Terzburg and the Ger-
man Knights. — Excursion to Bucses. — The Kalibaschen. — The
Convent.— The Valleys of Bucses,— Virtue in Self-denial— The
Alpine Horn. — Fortified Churches and Infidel Invasions.— Fa-
garas. — Hermanstadt.— Baron Bruchenthal. — RothenThurm Pass.
— A Digression on Wallachia and Moldavia. — Saxon Language.
— Beauty of Transylvania 349
CONTENTS. ix
CHAPTER XII.
KLAUSENBURG IN WINTER.
Transylvanian Hospitality. — Klausenburg. — Transylvanian In-
comes.— Money Matters. — The Gipsy Band. — Our Quarters. —
The Stove.— The Great Square.— -The Recruiting Party.— A Soi-
ree. —The Clergy. — The Reformed Church. — Religious Opinions.
— The Consistory. — Domestic Service. — County Meeting. — Count
Bethlen Janos. — Progress of Public Opinion. — The Arch-Duke. —
The Students and Officers. — Climate. — Separation of three Coun-
ties.— The Unitarians. — Habits of Society. — The Ladies. — Edu-
cation.— Children and Parents. — Divorces. — Casino and Smoking.
—Funerals.— Schools.— The Theatre. . . . Page 396
CHAPTER XIII.
WINTER JOURNEY ACROSS THE PtTSZTA.
Return to Pest. — A Poet. — Travelling Comforts. — The Car-
riers.— Gross Wardein. — Prince Hohenlohe. — The Italian. —
Paprika Hendel. — Great Cumania. — The Cumanians and Jazy-
gers. — The worst Road in Hungary. . . . .437
CHAPTER XIV.
THE CARNIVAL IN PEST.
A Ball. — Ladies' Costume. — Luxury and Barbarism. — Uni-
versity of Pest. — Number of Schools. — Austrian System of Edu-
cation— its Effects. — Corruption of Justice. — Delays of the
Law. — Literature. — Mr. Kolcsey. — Baron Josika. — Arts and
Artists. — The Theatre. — Magyar Language. — Mr. Korosi and
his expedition to Thibet. — Trade Companies. — Popular Jokes. —
Austria, Hungary, and Russia. — Blunders of Mr. Quin and other
English Writers on Hungary. — The last Ball of the Carnival. —
The Masquerade. — The breaking up of the Ice. . .448
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XV.
FROM PEST TO FIUME.
Departure from Pest. — Notary of Teteny. — Volcanic District. —
Bakonyer Forest. — Subri. — Hungarian Robbers. — Conscription. —
Wine of Somlyo. — Keszthely. — Signs of Civilization. — Costume
of Nagy Kanisa. — The Drave. — Death of Zriny. — Croatia and
Sclavonia. — State of the Peasantry. — Agram. — Croatian Language.
— Public Feeling in Croatia. — Smuggling. — Karlstadt. — Save
and Kulpa. — The Ludovica Road — its Importance. — Fiume. —
English Paper Mill. — Commerce. — Productions of Hungary. —
Demand for English Goods in Hungary. — Causes which impede
Commerce, and the Means of their Removal . . Page 492
ILLUSTRATIO NS
TO THE SECOND VOLUME.
NEW BRIDGE BETWEEN BUDA AND PEST, TO FACE TITLE PAGE.
BELGRADE . . . . .1
BORDER GUARD-HOUSES . . . . .17
BABAKAY ...... 36
DANUBE, NEAR KAZAN . . . .41
STERBECZU ALMARE . . . . .43
TRAJAN'S TABLET . . . . .44
PLAN OF VIA TRAJAN A . . . .46
WALLACES ...... 47
PASHA'S HOUSE AT ORSOVA . . . .50
THE IRON GATES . . . . .55
REMAINS OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE . . . .58
PLAN OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE .... ib.
COIN OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE . 60
TURKISH AQUEDUCT ..... 65
VALLEY OF MEHADIA . . . . .70
OVID'S TOWER . . . . . .94
TWO WALLACK HEADS . . . . .112
ROMANS AND DACIANS, FROM TRAJAN'S COLUMN . . 118
ROMAN TEMPLE AT DEMSUS . . . .120
VILLAGE OF VARHELY . . .131
WALLACK WOMEN 134
Xii ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
GIPSY GIRL ...... 159
CASTLE OF HUNYAD . . . . .165
VALLEY OF THE MAROS, FROM DEVA CASTLE . .180
SOLITARY INN . . . . . .211
ZSIBO ....... 222
VALLEY OF THE ARANYOS, AT BARE . . . 255
BAYLUKA ...... 276
A SECOND CAVERN . . . . ib.
THE DETONATA ...... 302
VALLEY OF ALMAS . . . . .331
KRONSTADT . . . . . .357
HERMITAGE OF BUCSES . . . . .376
VALLEY OF BUCSES . . . . .379
TRANS YLVANIAN GROOM AND HOUSEMAID . . 396
OLD TOWER AT KLAUSENBURG . « . . 436
HUNGARIAN LADY IN HER NATIONAL COSTUME . . 448
WOMEN'S HEAD-DRESSES ..... 502
FIUME FROM THE PORTA UNGARICA . 547
BELGEADE.
CHAPTER I.
DANUBE FROM PEST TO MOLDOVA.
The Zriny. — The Country below Pest. — Waste Lands. — An
Accident. — Mohacs. — Peterwardein. — Karlowitz. — The
Drave. — Semlin. — The Crusaders. — The Save. — Belgrade.
— Danube Navigation. — The Border Guard : their Laws and
Organization. — The Theiss and Temes. — Semendria. — George
Dosa. — Danube Scenery. — Servia, and Russian Policy.
AFTER a few days7 rest at Pest, we again prepared
to encounter the fatigues of travel. A remarkably
fine steam-boat, the Zriny, which had just been
launched, was about to make her first voyage, and
we gladly availed ourselves of the opportunity to
get clown to Moldova. A trial of her powers had
VOL. II. B
Z PUNCTUALITY.
been made a few days previously, in an excursion
up the river as far as Waitzen, with not less than
five hundred persons on board. Count Sze'chenyi,
by directing this little pleasure-trip, to which every
one was admitted on paying a zwanziger (ten-
pence), had managed to interest a great number of
persons in the success of the new boat; no small
matter where steam navigation is still a novelty, and
where it was met with countless prejudices which
are but yet disappearing. I think I know directors
of companies, who would have preferred private
tickets, and a party of their own friends ; by which,
of course, all the excluded would have been offended.
Which was the wiser system I leave my readers to
decide. We joined the party to Waitzen, and had
an opportunity of seeing the first meeting of two
steam-boats which ever took place on the waters of
the Danube. The Pannonia was returning from
Presburg, and met us near the termination of our
voyage. Count Szechenyi, who was on board the
Zriny, was recognised and loudly cheered by both
crews, on the occasion of this new advance to the
accomplishment of his favourite scheme. I thought
the Count's voice faltered, and his eye grew moist,
as he exclaimed, "Now I am sure wre shall suc-
ceed, and Hungary will not be for ever a stranger
to Europe."
It was fixed that we should start for Moldova
at five in the morning ; and so exact were they
to the time, that the boat was pushed off between
PUNCTUALITY. 3
the striking of the clocks of Pest and Buda. This
regularity is likely enough to make a change in
the national character of all the Danubian popula-
tions, at least in respect to punctuality. A fter one
of the fairs, when the steam-boats first began to
ply between Semlin and Pest, a large party of
Servian and Turkish merchants had taken their
places on board, in order to return to Belgrade,
and were duly informed that the vessel would start
at five. As this did not happen to suit these wor-
thy people's habits, and as they had no idea that
the boat would leave without them, they marched
solemnly down to the quay about eight, and, after
walking up and down for some time in search of
the vessel, they were at last made to understand
that she had gone three hours before. Their as-
tonishment and consternation are said to have been
most ludicrous; but it was not without its effect,
for none of these people have been too late for the
steam-boat from that day to this.
Our party in the Zriny was small, but exceed-
ingly agreeable ; the Baroness W and her ami-
able and pretty daughter, Count Sz^chenyi on his
way to superintend the works near Orsova, two
of our own countrymen bound for Constantinople,
and ourselves, formed almost the whole of the
passengers. The morning was cold and misty, but
it soon cleared up into a fine autumn day. On
the Pest side, the country is one continued flat,
and on the other, the low hills, which extend for
B2
THE DANUBE.
some distance from the Blocksberg, soon disappear
altogether, and a level plain extended on every side.
It would be useless to describe the whole of our
route. The scenery has little variety. The flat
plain is sometimes raised into small sand-hills
covered with vines, the thick woods are sometimes
broken by a little pasture and corn-land surrounding
a village or small town ; the banks are generally
low ; the river itself deep, wide, and less rapid
than above, indeed in every respect much better
calculated for navigation ; but, for the rest, a mono-
tonous uniformity pervaded the whole of our first
day's journey.
The number of islands in this part of the Danube
is very great ; some of them of considerable extent,
others serving only to ornament the river. As they
are mostly low, they are but of little value; the
smaller ones are chiefly in wood, the larger are
partly swamp and partly pasture. Floating water-
mills mark the approach to almost every village.
The only craft we met, except the small canoes of
the peasants, and the flat-bottomed boats which, on
the firing of a gun, came to take off passengers, were
the long barge-like vessels from Szegedin. These
are clean-built boats, covered in with a kind of
deck, and chiefly employed in bringing up corn
from the country of the Theiss and Temes to Pest
and Vienna. They are commonly towed up the
stream by men or horses. I have seen as many as
forty-six of the former, and twenty of the latter,
WASTE LANDS. 5
employed at one boat. Accidents are very com-
mon among these men ; and it is no rare thing to
see the body of a man or horse floating down the
Danube. The body is probably allowed to proceed
to the Black Sea, without any one thinking it worth
while to interrupt its course or inquire the cause
of death.
None of the towns or villages passed during the
first day presented anything worthy of remark ; their
white-washed cottages and steeples had a look of
cleanliness which the interior would hardly bear
out, I fear. Among the largest were Foldvar,
Paks, Tolna, Baja, and Bata.
We saw a great number of wild-fowl at different
times. The ducks were in immense flocks; and
hawks, particularly a white species, very plentiful.
Of the pelicans, which are so common lower down,
we saw none ; nor did we observe any of the white
herons, which yield the beautiful aigrettes, though
they are said to be pretty frequent. The solitary
beaver, which is common enough above Vienna, is
rarely or never found in Hungary.
We were told that, on the east bank, the immense
tract of land, extending much further than we
could see, is almost useless, from the wet and
boggy state in which it is allowed to lie. It is
calculated that by embankments and canals it
might be all reclaimed at the cost of about four
shillings an acre ; and, at the lowest calculation,
it would let for as much per annum, Yet it still
6 AN ACCIDENT.
lies waste. The chief proprietors are not above
six in number. One has got no money to begin
with ; another has already more corn than he can
sell ; and a third likes to let things remain as
they are : and so land, which would maintain a
million of men, is left to grow leeches and to breed
fevers. Were it not that one set of bad laws
renders the title to purchased property so insecure,
and another set makes the sale of corn often im-
possible, of course foreign capital would soon
remedy such evils as these.
At Baja, to our no small regret, the ladies left
us. Carriages were in waiting ; a host of depend-
ants were there to kiss their hands and welcome
them home ; and, as we passed on, a cloud of
dust hid them from our sight, though it did not
drive them from our memories.
Soon after leaving Baja, we passed through a
canal, cut a few years since to avoid a long and
difficult winding of the river.
As it was getting dusk, I had retired to the
cabin to write up my journal : when, soon after
we had quitted the canal, a sudden shock threw
everything about with great violence, and brought
us all on deck to know what was the matter. We
found the boat aground, with her prow high and
dry on shore. The light of the moon, with a slight
mist on the water, had deceived the captain, and
led him to think he was on the edge of a sand-
bank ; to avoid which he put the boat about,
STEAM-BOAT COMPANY. 7
and ran her straight ashore. It was altogether a
sad bungle. In such a light, some one should have
been a-head to look out. Fortunately no harm was
done; but it prevented us from going on during
the night, which had been Count Szechenyi's first
intention. We accordingly came to anchor at
Mohacs about eight o'clock, having run one hun-
dred and eighty miles in fifteen hours.
This was the first voyage the captain had ever
made ; and he was dismissed immediately on his
return. I mention this fact, because it shows with
what care the interests of the public are watched
over by this company : indeed, were it otherwise, it
would be impossible to conceive how they could
have escaped for so many years under all the
disadvantages of a new undertaking, without a
single serious accident. Had any loss of life oc-
curred during the first year or two, it is very
possible Government, in its paternal carefulness,
would at once have stopped the whole affair. To
avoid such a catastrophe, no engines have been
employed but those of Bolton and Watt ; nor any
engineers but those brought up and recommended
by the same house. They have been treated, too,
in the most liberal manner. The captains, likewise,
are generally very superior men ; and it is im-
possible not to admire the consideration with which
Count Sz^chenyi behaves towards them. They are
frequently invited to his table, consulted on every
point of difficulty, and their opinions listened to
8 MOHACS.
and followed. It is by such means that steam
navigation on the Danube has been, at its very
commencement, brought to a degree of perfection
which it has required many years' experience to
effect in other countries.
Mohacs, otherwise an insignificant town, has
witnessed two of the most important battles ever
fought in Europe ; important not only from the
number of the combatants, but from their political
results. The first of them, in 1526, which witnessed
the slaughter of a king, seven bishops, five hun-
dred nobles, and twenty thousand soldiers, not only
laid open the whole country to the inroads of the
Turks, and established them for nearly a century
and a half in its capital, but changed the reigning
dynasty of Hungary, and introduced for the first
time a German sovereign to the Hungarian throne.
By the same blow too Transylvania was separated
from Hungary, and remained so for many years.
The second, in 1687, undid much of what the
first had done : it concluded the splendid victories
of the Duke of Lorraine over the Turks ; it opened
Transylvania to the Hungarian troops ; and prepared
the way for the expulsion of the Moslem, which a
few years later was finally effected.
After taking in a supply of coals, obtained in this
neighbourhood, and said to be of a pretty good
quality, we again got our paddles in motion and
went gaily on our way. One cannot help wonder-
ing at the hidden resources which any new neces-
THE DRAVE. 9
sity discloses. In Hungary, before steam-boats were
introduced, there was only one coal-mine known
in the whole country. In the short space of time
which has elapsed since their first establishment,
three others and of better quality have been disco-
vered along the valley of the Danube alone, — that
of Count Sandor between Presburg and Pest, an-
other in the neighbourhood of Mohacs, and the best
of all at Orawitza near Moldova. There is a bad
law in Hungary, which interdicts the cutting down
of forests on the plea of maintaining a supply of
fire-wood. Of course it is vain to expect a full
developement of the mineral riches of the country
until this law is abolished.
Our second day's route became rather less mono-
tonous. About twelve we passed the embouchure
of the Drave, which has all the appearance of a
fine navigable river. At present the Drave is little
used, but it is impossible not to foresee a brilliant
future for it. Extending from the centre of Hun-
gary along the north of Sclavonia and Croatia, and
through the whole of Styria, it brings into connec-
tion populations so far removed from sea-ports that
water-carriage cannot fail to offer them advantages
of which a few years will teach them to avail them-
selves. The scenery was occasionally varied by a
ruined castle, or a slight elevation in the surface of
the plain, of which the peasants eagerly avail them-
selves and form into vineyards. The castle of Erdod,
with its massive round towers, is highly picturesque,
10 SCLAVONIA.
but it is fast crumbling to decay. From the mouth
of the Drave we have been passing, on the west, the
banks of Sclavonia, which appears a rich and highly
cultivated country. The people are, like the Croa-
tians of a Sclavish race, and belong exclusively to
the Greek and Catholic Churches. I believe the
only difference between these provinces and the
rest of Hungary, at the present time, is their
power of excluding Protestants from the possession
of land or the enjoyment of any privileges within
their boundaries.
At Vukovar we stopped to land some handsome
furniture from Vienna. It is said to be astonishing
how much furniture and how many carriages have
been sent from Pest and Vienna, not only to the
southern parts of Hungary, but into Wallachia and
Turkey, since the steam-boats have been establish-
ed. The monastery at Vukovar has a pretty ap-
pearance from the river. The town produces some
silk.
A short turn of the river now brought us in view
of the ruins of Scherengrad ; and, a little further
on, we came to the castle of Illok a large building,
though apparently somewhat neglected. It be-
longs, as well as immense estates here, to Prince
Odescalchi. A low range of hills has accompa-
nied us along the west bank for some distance;
and the openings which they sometimes present, dis-
closing their green valleys, and silver streams, and
whitewashed cottages, and fantastic steeples, are
PETERWARDEIN. 11
most beautiful. It became so dark about seven,
that, to avoid accidents, we dropped our anchor
opposite OFutak for the night.
We were scarcely awake next morning when
we were roused up to see the fortress of Peter-
wardein. Directly above our heads, with cur-
tains, bastions, and towers grinning with artillery
after the most approved fashion, was the hill of
Peterwardein, and on the opposite side a tete du
pont, and other hard-named outworks in great
abundance. Though modern fortifications have
very little architectural beauty to boast, the fine
situation of this gives it a commanding effect.
Peterwardein is, I believe, considered strong; and
occupies a position of considerable military im-
portance. It is adapted to contain ten thousand
men.
Neusatz, on the opposite side, chiefly inhabited
by Greeks, is an important commercial town.
A long bend of the river to the north brought
us to Karlowitz, a pretty little town situated at the
foot of a hill covered with vines down to its very
base. A celebrated wine is made here by a mix-
ture of red and white grapes, which from its pecu-
liar colour is called Schiller.
Karlowitz is the seat of the chief of the non-
united Greek church in Hungary, and contains a
lyceum and theological school of that religion.
I need scarcely add that it is from this place the
celebrated peace of 1699 takes its name. A few
12 SEMLIN.
miles further brought us to the mouth of the
Theiss, which has here — and Count Szechenyi
says, throughout its whole course — much the same
width it has at Tokay, a distance of more than
two hundred miles in a direct line, and probably
twice that distance by the river. It is navigable
for steam vessels the whole of that extent.
We met the Francis the First, the steamer, on
this station, returning from Moldova heavily laden
with wool, but carrying few passengers. They say
the back-freights consist principally of wool, honey,
iron, tobacco, and wine ; while those down are
almost entirely composed of manufactured goods.
They have been offered freights of fat pigs from
Servia, but have been obliged to decline them till
they get some tug-boats at work. Pigs form a
very important article of trade between Servia and
Vienna ; the immense oak-woods, with which that
country is covered, being used almost exclusively
for feeding those animals. The Servian pig is a
beautiful creature ; and I doubt if Smithfield could
show better shapes or better feeding in this particu-
lar than the market of a Servian village.
As we approached Semlin the banks became
more flat ; and the river, which had hitherto not
averaged more than a quarter of a mile in width,
acquired a more extended bed.
Semlin is one of those localities which Nature
herself has marked out for the position of a town.
Tt occupies the angle formed by the junction of
SEMLIN. 13
two vast rivers, the Danube and the Save ; and
it becomes necessarily a depot for supplying the
wants of the people occupying their banks. Count
Szechenyi tells us that the Save is navigable, and
he feels sure it will very soon have its steam-boats
as well as the Danube. From the day of their esta-
blishment Semlin may date a new birth. It is at
present chiefly supported by its intercourse with
Servia, on the opposite bank of the Save ; and
in consequence, the majority of its ten thousand
inhabitants belong to that nation. It contains some
tolerable streets in the interior, but the part near
the Danube looks as miserable as need be ; indeed,
the greater portion visible from the steam-boat is
the gipsy town, a collection of mud huts on the
side of the hill. Until the establishment of steam-
boats, Semlin was the usual starting-point for Con-
stantinople ; and it was here that quarantine was
performed on returning. It is still used by the
couriers ; but travellers generally prefer the com-
fort of a steam-boat to the hardships of a Tatar
excursion across the Balkan.
Semlin is historically memorable as the Mala
Villa of the first crusaders. The three hundred
thousand of the dregs of Europe, who had terrified
all Germany with their frightful excesses, at last
approached the frontiers of Hungary. The avant-
garde, under Walter Sans-avoir, having demanded
and obtained permission to pass through the coun-
try, arrived at Semlin without impediment ; but
14 THE CRUSADERS IN HUNGARY.
here sixteen of the men fell into the hands of
the peasants and were robbed. When the larger
body, under the guidance of Peter the Hermit,
arrived, and heard of this mishap, they determined
to revenge it by the destruction of Semlin and its
garrison of four thousand men. So infamous a
treachery soon drew on the crusaders the rage of
a people who, but half converted, had not yet
learned to hate with due cordiality all who differed
from them in faith ; and Peter and his followers
thought themselves fortunate to escape as best they
could across the Danube. Volkmar, with twelve
thousand Bohemians, who had advanced no farther
than Neutra, were cut to pieces. Of the fifteen
thousand Germans who followed the priest Gott-
schalk, scarcely three thousand escaped the arrows
of the Hungarians; while the two hundred thou-
sand rabble of both sexes and of every age, which
brought up the rear under Emiko, panic-struck at
the fate of their companions, broke up their camp
before the King of Hungary could approach Ung-
risch Altenburg, which they were besieging, and
dispersed without having even approached the
object of their fanatic veneration. It required
nothing less than the noble courage, the frankness,
and the piety of Godefroy de Bouillon to re-esta-
blish a respect for the crusaders or their religion
in the minds of the half pagan Hungarians.
We remained but a short time at Semlin, to take
in coals, and submit our passports to the inspection
BELGRADE. 15
of a police officer. Since steam has brought so
many strangers down the Danube, Austria has
begun to establish the system of passports here ;
and, if the Hungarians do not look to it they
themselves will soon feel its annoyance as well as
the foreigners who visit them.
A few minutes after we quitted Semlin, the guns
were got ready and we fired a salute to the garrison
of Belgrade, which was returned in due form. This
ceremonious politeness to Belgrade seemed rather a
testimony of respect to what it had been, than to
what it now is, for its glory is sadly fallen. Its hill
is still covered with walls, and gates, and towers ;
but the walls are half down, the gates open, and
the towers dismantled. A Pasha still sits in its
fortress, but he could no longer defy the best troops
of Europe from his stronghold.
As we passed, a few Turks were seen lying lazily
along the banks of the river ; others were watering
their horses ; while, a little further on, a group of
Servian women were washing, up to their knees in
the water. The town of Belgrade, which lies beyond
the fortress, has a very beautiful appearance, from
the number of minarets and domes peeping from
out the dark cypresses by which they are sur-
rounded. This was the first glimpse I had ever
caught of a minaret, and I can scarcely express
the pleasure it gave me ; it was something so new,
and yet so familiar.
It was near Belgrade, for the first time since
1C DANUBE NAVIGATION.
we had embarked on the Danube, that a sail had
met our eye. The Hungarian never uses the sail,
the only means of moving against the stream he is
acquainted with is towing : and, though he has seen
the sail employed for so many centuries on the op-
posite side of the same river, he has never thought
of applying it himself. It was curious enough to
see the Hungarian, Turkish, and English systems of
navigation in use at the same moment : upwards of
forty men were toiling to drag a huge barge against
a strong stream on the Hungarian bank ; on the
Servian, the lattine sail bore the Turkish boat gaily
before the wind ; while, in the middle, the glorious
invention of Watt urged on the magnificent Zriny,
and threatened to swallow up the crazy craft of
the others in her wake. One might have fancied
three ages of the world in presence of each other
at the same moment.
A new feature in the landscape, and for us a
new object of wonder and inquiry, soon caught our
eyes. All along the Hungarian bank, at certain
distances, perhaps half a mile apart, were small
buildings, sometimes made of wood, and raised on
posts, or in other situations, mere mud huts, before
each of which stood a sentry on duty. They
were the stations of the Hungarian military fron-
tier guard.
An institution of so extraordinary a character as
that on which we had now fallen, demands a few
words of explanation.
THE BORDER GUARD-HOUSES. 17
From a very early period the banks of the Save
and Danube, from their frontier position, were in-
fested by bands of Servians and others, who lived
in a great measure by war and plunder : many of
these were fugitives from the neighbouring coun-
tries, and were received by the Hungarians on
condition of defending the frontier on which they
lived from further incursions.
Before the first battle of Mohacs, we hear of
some attempts having been made to form these
borderers into regiments on one or two points ; as
the Turks retired and left the frontiers more
free, this organization was extended to the newly
acquired regions ; and, when at last the whole line
fell into the hands of Austria, it was rendered com-
plete, and reduced to a regular system. The last
part organized was the Transylvanian borders, which
did not take place till 1766. The system, there-
fore, is one which has grown out of the wants of the
VOL. II. C
18 THE BORDER GUARD.
times, rather than been created by an inspiration of
genius ; and the frequent changes which have taken
place in the laws by which it is regulated show that
experience only has brought it to its present state
of efficiency.
The object has been to maintain at the least pos-
sible cost a border guard along the whole Turkish
frontier of Hungary, which in peace might be em-
ployed for the purposes of quarantine and customs,
and in war serve as a portion of the standing army.
This has been effected so perfectly, that in peace
nearly forty thousand men do duty along an extent
of eight hundred miles of frontier ; and they not
only feed and clothe themselves, but pay heavy
taxes in money besides, and perform also a consi-
derable quantity of labour without pay. In time of
war this guard can furnish, on an emergency, two
hundred thousand men in arms.
The land acquired by Government, by purchase
or exchange, along the whole of this district, has
been divided among the inhabitants, and is held as
fiefs on the tenure of military and civil service. A
portion of land comprising from thirty-six to fifty
acres constitutes an entire fief, the half or quarter
constituting half and quarter fiefs. Each of these
is bound to furnish, and to maintain and clothe,
according to its size, one or more men-at-arms.
In order to carry out this plan, the fiefs are given to
families composed of several members, of which the
eldest is the House-father, and the younger are the
THE BORDER GUARD. 11)
men-at-arms. The Home-father, and his wife, the
House-mother, have the direction of the farm, the
care of the house, the duty of providing for the
necessities of the whole family, and the right to
control them and to watch over their industry and
morals. On the other hand, the rest of the men of
the family must be consulted on any great changes,
as purchases and sales ; and at the end of the year
they may demand an account of the expenditure
from the House-father. No man who has been pun-
ished for a crime can be a House-father ; and, if he
be habitually drunken or immoral, he loses the right
which age would otherwise have given him. The
family owe him obedience and respect. The fief
itself, and the implements and cattle necessary for
its cultivation, cannot be sold, and every member of
the family has a right in them. A portion of land,
called Uberland, — land over and above the quan-
tity required for the fiefs,— and any excess of cattle
or production, may be sold with the consent of a
superior officer. All the members of the family
are allowed to marry, and marriage is even held
out to them as an honourable duty. When a
family becomes rich or too large, its members are
allowed to divide, and the party separating re-
ceives another fief, either by grant or purchase of
Uberland, within the frontier district, which then
becomes a feudal fief. Such as leave the fron-
tier service have no right in the property of the
family.
e2
20 THE BORDER GUARD.
The land is cultivated for the common good of
all the members of a family ; and the profit, if any
remains after the taxes and other expenses are
defrayed, is divided among them. No individual is
allowed to keep cattle, or to work for his own ex-
clusive profit, — at least, without permission of the
rest. In most cases, a whole family, consisting of
many married couples, with their children, some-
times to the number of fifty individuals, live under
the same roof, cultivate the same land, eat at the
same table, and obey the same father.
The military duty in time of peace consists in
watching the frontiers. For this purpose the man-
at-arms repairs to the station for seven days at a
time, where the family provide him with food. Be-
sides this, he has the duty of transporting letters,
as well as the money and baggage of the regiment,
and of performing exercise. For the manual exer-
cise, four days a month is required, from October to
March. In spring and autumn the company exer-
cises together for a week ; and, at longer intervals,
the whole regiment encamps out, and manoeuvres
together.
Every family is divided into the invalids, half
invalids, enrolled, and youths. Every man of full
age, who has not some bodily failing, is enrolled.
For the ordinary service the number of men on
duty amounts to four thousand one hundred and
seventy-nine. In times of disturbance on the
Turkish side, or when the plague is drawing near,
THE BORDER GUARD. 21
they are increased to six thousand seven hundred
and ninety-eight, and in times of still greater dan-
ger to ten thousand and sixteen men.
In time of war the borderer must form a part of
the regular army, and march out of the country if
required. The regular disposable force amounts to
thirty-four thousand eight hundred and twenty-
seven ; but, if the reserve and Landwehr are called
out, to one hundred thousand. If driven to the
last extremity, they can muster to the amount
of two hundred thousand men.* By means of
alarm-fires and bells, this immense force can be
summoned together through the whole extent of
the frontier in the space of four hours.
The borderers are divided into seven regiments
according to the district they occupy, — six infan-
try, and one hussar. Besides these, there is a divi-
sion of Tschaikisten, so called from the wooden boxes
set on piles, and furnished with open galleries round
them, in which they keep guard along the morasses
of the Save and Danube, and who do the duty of
pontonniers. Like the peasant the border family
has to do civil service — one day per annum for
every English acre — for the state ; as in the repair
of post-roads and bridges, draining of swamps, re-
gulating rivers, repairing public buildings, &c. : and
eight days per annum for the village ; as in build-
ing churches and school-houses, keeping the village
* These numbers are taken from Csaplovic's Gemalde von
Ungarn.
22 THE BORDER GUARD.
roads in order, cutting wood for the school, and
working the farms of widows and orphans.
The borderer's chief tax, besides the furnishing
the uniform for a man-at-arms, — the shoes, arms,
and leather- work are given by Government, as well
as twelve shillings a-year in aid of the rest, — is
the land-tax, amounting, for an entire fief, to from
fifteen to thirty shillings per annum. Tradesmen,
artisans, and Jewrs, pay according to their property ;
from eight shillings to four pounds a-year.
The border officers have many duties peculiar to
the position of feudal superiors, which they occupy.
They give consent to marriages, their permission is
necessary to the sale and transfer of property, real
or personal, and, at times, they act as judges and
ministers of police. From the mixed nature of the
borderers' duty, different descriptions of officers are
required, and we accordingly find officers of eco-
nomy, to direct the farming processes, architects,
surveyors, &c. for the care of public property, but
the most extraordinary officers, for a military estab-
lishment, are the regularly educated regimental
midwives, and, under them, the company's and
squadron's midwives !
Many laws of the borderers are framed in a spirit
of paternal kindness ; among others those for the
encouragement of industry, the inducing to the ac-
cumulation of wealth, and the preservation of order
and agreement in families, besides institutions for
the maintenance of the widows and orphans, and
THE BORDER GUARD. 23
for the education and improvement of the people.
Benigni states, that of the children between seven
and twelve years old on the Transylvanian fron-
tiers, seven thousand eight hundred and six out of
nine thousand and seventy-seven boys, and three
thousand four hundred and forty-four out of seven
thousand one hundred and three girls, were pro-
vided with the elements of education in the border
schools. In Hungary the proportion is still higher ;
probably nine-tenths of the whole can read and
write in one or two languages.
The administration of justice seems to be yet
more favourably organized. The first tribunal in
civil cases is formed by a lieutenant of economy, a
sergeant-major of economy, two sergeants and two
corporals of economy, and two house-fathers chosen
by the colonel. Their judgment must be confirmed
by the captain. In criminal cases the court martial,
composed, however, of officers, non-commissioned
officers, and soldiers, decides.
It is impossible to study this institution, and not
be struck with its power and utility, and with the
wisdom and philanthropy with which many of its
regulations are conceived ; and to a military man,
whose idea of the value of a country is in pro-
portion to the amount of applicable force that can
be drawn from it and maintained by it, it must
appear perfect. But it would be unfair did we not
point out some of the objections which the Hun-
garians themselves urge against it.
24 THE BORDER GUARD.
We have seen that an immense military force
has been thrown round one-half the circumference
of Hungary : — in what hands does the command
of this force lie? from what sources does it draw
its supplies? what sympathies and feelings are
encouraged in it ? — in other words, what is its
nationality? In a constitutional country these are
important inquiries.
Every regiment receives its orders directly through
its colonel, he again from a general of brigade, and
he from the commander of the district, who is
under the Hofkriegsrath (the council of war) in
Vienna. We have seen that the borderers draw
their resources entirely from their own labour, — for
the taxes they pay would more than refund the
cost of their arms; and for their nationality, it is
enough to say that German is taught exclusively in
their schools, German used exclusively as the lan-
guage of the service, that a great number of the
officers are Germans, and that the laws to be referred
to, in case the particular laws of the border do not
provide for any difficulty, are the laws of the
German provinces, to prove that Austrian, not
Hungarian, feelings and sympathies are encouraged
in the borderers of Hungary. The Hungarian Diet
has the right to vote the levy of troops, and the
supplies for their support, or to refuse them in case
of need ; but here is a force, over the levying and
supply of which they have no control. We cannot
be astonished that this should form one of the
THE BORDER GUARD. 25
gravamina of the Diet, and that it should strongly
claim a right to the superintendence of the border
guard.
There are some, too, who urge that this border
wall is more efficacious and better constructed for
keeping Hungarians within their boundaries, than
Turks and plague without them, and there are not
wanting those even who regard the whole quarantine
system as a great engine of police. In favour of
this view of the matter they urge that the cordon
has been more frequently strengthened on the
appearance of what Government is apt to consider
most pestilential, — a political fever within the
country, than of a plague invasion from without ;
that personal intercourse is impeded, that an in-
quisitorial search is authorised, and that even private
letters and despatches are opened and examined,
though it is well known that smugglers pass the
frontiers at every hour of the day. The best answer
to these objections, and one very difficult to con-
trovert, is the simple fact that the plague has never
entered Hungary since the border organization has
been completed, where previously, ever since the
first irruption of the Turks across the Danube,
scarcely twenty years elapsed without its recurrence,
although it has been as frequent and violent as ever
in the neighbouring countries.
Considerable cruelty has been urged against the
introducers of the border system in some parts of the
country, and particularly in Transylvania. It has
26 THE BORDER GUARD.
been told me that the Szeklers, who, according to
their old constitution, were not bound to serve out
of the country, when ordered to march thought
themselves justified in refusing, and were only
compelled to submit after a frightful massacre, in
which, in many villages, every tenth man, woman,
and child, indifferently, was shot by the Imperial
troops. Of the actual state of the borders, material
or moral, as compared with that of the rest of
Hungary, I can say but little from personal ob-
servation ; from what I did see I certainly should
not have adjudged them a higher material civiliza-
tion, and I do not believe that military organization
is adapted to produce great moral advancement.
From some of those who live in their neighbourhood,
I have heard the borderers spoken of as poorer and
more miserable than the common peasants, and in
the Croatian district one of their own officers de-
clared them to be most notorious thieves. In
active service I believe they have proved themselves,
both for discipline and courage, on an equality with
the best regular troops.
A few miles below Belgrade, another fine river,
the Temes, which, though smaller than those we
have lately passed, is still navigable, pours its water
into the Danube. The Temes runs, for the most
part, through a flat country, and its course is con-
sequently tortuous and sluggish, but it has been
improved by the Bega canal, which traverses a con-
siderable part of the rich Banat, and joins the Temes,
SERVIA. 27
near Temesvar. This is the fourth navigable river,
the mouth of which we have passed within a space
of fifty miles. Surely never was any country so
blessed by nature with the means of communication
as Hungary, — never have they been more signally
neglected.
The hills on the Servian side now became ex-
ceedingly J3retty. They are not generally high, but
nothing can be imagined more perfectly wild and
picturesque. They are covered, down to the very
water's edge, with a low natural wood. Here and
there are a few houses, or rather huts, with vine-
yards, and Indian corn, and occasionally, perhaps,
something which may be called a village, and has a
name, but this is rare. All these hills are capable
of cultivation, but insecurity, want of population,
and want of capital, keep them wild. The state
of Servia, at the present moment, is essentially
one of transition, and that too with all its worst
features. For many years subject to the Turkish
yoke, and suffering more than most other parts of
the empire, because frequently the scene of contests
— the first loss after a defeat, the first prize of a
victory, — its population has become so diminished
by oppression and emigration, that its whole surface
is, at the present day, little more than one vast
forest, and its population a collection of swine-
herds.
The long-conceived designs of Russia against the
integrity, and ultimate existence of the Turkish
28 SERVIA AND RUSSIA.
empire, are now no secret. The successive risings
in Wallachia, Servia, and Greece, testify how cun-
ningly and effectually her plans succeeded. Such
instruments as Cserny (black) George, were not
difficult to find among a people like the Servians,
and in a country of woods and mountains, a revo-
lution was no very difficult matter to maintain,
especially when excited by a priesthood, whom a
similarity of language and religion readily disposed
in favour of Russia. These plans have been car-
ried out almost without opposition. The sympathy
of Europe requires only the watch-words of Chris-
tianity and liberty, which none have used more
liberally than the crime-stained and tyrannical, to
become engaged in any cause; domestic troubles
adroitly taken advantage of, colonial disaffection
secretly abetted, and an aristocratic diplomacy, which,
if too proud to be bribed, is too ignorant and too
indifferent to be efficient, has done the rest. The
result we have before us in the separation of these
countries from the Ottoman empire, and their almost
total dependence on Russia.
But the calculations of the wisest sometimes
come to nought. It was easy to excite the hatred
of the Wallachians against Turkey, but it was not
so easy to make them love the Russians : it was easy
to find a native prince of strong natural powers
capable of leading the Servians, but it was hard to
make such a prince relish the leading-strings him-
self. Belgrade has been for some years a great
SERVIA AND RUSSIA. 29
centre of Russian intrigue. Sometimes the Servian
population has been excited against its prince,
sometimes the prince forced into opposition to the
Porte. Now an emissary has been despatched
among the Sclavish populations of Croatia and
Bosnia, now among the Greek religionists of the
Banat of Hungary, and for such enterprises Bel-
grade was the starting point. In the mean time,
Austria, England, and France have looked on — the
former with fear and trembling — the two latter
with stupid indifference.* If report may be be-
lieved, however, Prince Milosch, a man of much
energy and talent, is exerting himself to improve
and civilize his country ; and though forced in
appearance to bow to a power he is too weak to
oppose, he does not find his chain the less galling,
nor will he be the less anxious to get rid of it on
the first good occasion.f
* Since our visit, Austria has sent a very able representative
to Belgrade, in the person of M. Milanovitch ; and still later,
England, Colonel Hodges.
f Since this was written, what is called a constitution has
been given to Servia, chiefly through the influence of Eussia. in
whose hands the nomination of the chief members rests. Milosch
has resisted, been deposed, driven from the country, and his son
placed in his stead. It is exceedingly difficult to arrive at any-
thing like the truth on such matters, from the known subser-
viency of the German papers to Russia ; but it looks very much
as if Russia was playing her old game of disorganizing and
ruining, that she herself may in time be called in to settle, and
reconstitute — take possession, if she will — in any manner that
seems to her best.
30 SEMENDRIA.
Three hours' pleasant sailing along these beau-
tiful frontiers, brought us opposite the fortress of
Semendria, another painful monument of Turkey's
former greatness, and Turkey's present weakness.
Semendria is singularly built. A perfectly flat
position has been chosen, watered on one side by
the Danube, and on another by a small river, the
Jesoba, and on the neck of land, between these,
a triangular wall of great height has been erected,
strengthened at intervals by thirteen towers of
various forms. Semendria was formerly the seat of
a Pasha, and it often figures in Hungarian history
as an important post in the Border wars. Under
Alibeg Pasha, it became a name of terror to the
whole country.
It was at the siege of Semendria, in 1513, that
George Dosa, a name afterwards so celebrated in
Hungarian history, first distinguished himself by
cutting off the hand of a Turkish officer, and
taking him prisoner. The king presented him
with a golden chain and silver spurs as guerdon
for the knightly deed. Poor Dosa's fate was so
characteristic of the age, and at the same time so
poetically cruel, that we cannot pass it over.
It was in the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, that Archbishop Bakats, like a second Peter
the hermit, returned from Rome, armed with a
papal bull, and tried to set all Hungary in a
blaze with his preachings for a new crusade.
Constantly as Hungary had been engaged in hos-
GEORGE DOSA. 31
tilities with the Moslems since they had gained
Constantinople, these never seem to have partaken
so much of the character of religious wars, as of
wars of conquest and defence; and, on the present
occasion, the call of Bakats seems to have been
almost unheeded by the nobles. Among the igno-
rant and discontented peasantry, however, to whom
the desire of escape from servitude, and the anti-
cipation of plunder may have been as strong in-
ducements as the hope of salvation, his success was
greater, and in a short time forty thousand of them
flocked under his banner to the Rakos plain in the
neighbourhood of Pest.
A suspicion has been entertained that the motive
for Bakats' zeal was not quite so much ecclesias-
tical,— Christian I cannot call it, — as personal
aggrandizement. His excessively ambitious cha-
racter, the opposition which he had met with from
some of the higher nobles, the school in which he
had been brought up — he was secretary to Mathias
Corvinus, — the exciting harangues of some of the
clergy, and above all, the choice of George Dosa, a
common Szekler soldier, to head this vast multitude,
gives strong ground for the suspicion. Be that as
it may, no sooner did Dosa receive orders to march
his forces against the Turks, than he at once de-
clared war against the nobles ; and the peasantry,
predisposed by the oppression they had suffered
since the death of Mathias, and encouraged by the
miserable weakness of his successor, having now
32 DOSA'S DEATH.
thrown off all restraint, and excited by the pro-
mises of their leaders, were ready enough to seize
an opportunity of revenging their wrongs, and
achieving their liberty.
Dosa maintained the field against the Hungarian
nobles for nearly six months, during which four
hundred of their order fell a sacrifice to popular
vengeance, till at last Zapolya attacked him whilst
besieging Temesvar, took him prisoner, and com-
pletely destroyed his army.
If the peasants had been guilty of cruel excesses,
the death of Dosa most amply atoned for them.
Not content with the slaughter of seventy thousand
peasants, many of them women and children, it
was determined to execute their leader in a manner
which should strike terror into all future genera-
tions of peasants, and the inventive cruelty of a
cruel age was taxed for its worst tortures.
Dosa was seated on a throne of red-hot iron, a
red-hot crown was placed upon his head, and a
red-hot sceptre in his hand. Forty of his followers
had been confined without food for a fortnight ; nine
of them still survived the starvation, when they
were brought before their tortured leader and com-
manded to feed on him yet living. Those who
hesitated were cut down, while the rest tore the
flesh from his bones and devoured it greedily. " To
it, hounds, ye are of my own training!" was the
only remark which escaped the lips of the suffering
Dosa.
THE DANUBE. 33
It was just sunset as we left Semendria, and
the broad streaks of red light which fell upon
the water, with the deep shadows thrown by the
old towers, gave an air of solemn beauty to the
picture.
As we advanced beyond this point, the river grew
wider and wider, while the banks seemed covered
with impenetrable forests and morasses. The soli-
tude and grandeur of this vast wilderness was ex-
ceedingly imposing. As I stood almost alone upon
the deck towards evening, I could have fancied my-
self in a new land, an unexplored region. I have
never seen the Mississippi, but I do not think that,
even in the fastnesses of America, the impression of
a new and untrodden land could be more complete
than here. On either side of us were thick forests,
so thick that the eye searched in vain for some
indication that they had ever been visited. The
flocks of wild fowl, which covered the water, allowed
us to pass near them, apparently without suspicion
of danger ; but no sooner did the eagle appear in
sight, than they dived away and hid themselves
from his searching glance. Everything seemed to
say that man was a stranger there.
It was just beyond the island of Osztrova, that
we dropped our anchor in the middle of the stream,
— two miles in width here — let off our steam, and
made up for the night.
I and Mr. H n walked the deck till deep in
the night, discussing the various fates which time
VOL, II. D
34 (RUSSIAN INTRIGUES.
might have in store for the nations of the Danube.
The ambitious projects of Russia, just then dis-
f closed by the energy and talent of Mr. Urquhart,
) had opened to us the danger which Hungary, as well
^ as Wallachia, Servia, and the whole of Turkey ran,
i if those projects were not ^peedilychecked. We
/knew that the cabinet of Austria, at first strongly
/ inimical to Russia, had been so frightened from her
propriety by reform in England, and revolution in
France, — a revolution in which she can still see no
difference from that of eighty-nine, — that she had
thrown herself into the arms of her betrayer with-
out the decency of reserve, without the prudence of
a contract. At the same moment we saw this same
Russia attempting to increase her influence among
L the Sclavish populations of Hungary by the plea of
/identity of origin and interest, and to undermine
the fidelity of the adherence to the Greek church
by the claim of supremacy, and the corruption of
an ignorant priesthood. We saw how, step by
step, Russia had approached the frontier of Hun-
gary on the north ; how she had then crept round
the east and^ south ; how, during all this time, she
had played with the absurd fear of Austria on the
subject of liberalism, and how in the end, these
absurd fears had led that power to suffer her am-
bitious neighbour to bind one by one herjimbsjn
chains, and finally to threaten her with suffocation
should she dare to stir, by closing her mouth — the
Danube.
RUSSIAN INTRIGUES.^S 35
^-— _.__ —-^
At the same time we saw the frontier fortresses
of Turkey occupied by Russian troops ; — we saw
Wallachia^ Moldavia, and Seryia, under the name
of independence, subjected to the most galling
vassalage, with Russia for a Suzerain ; — we saw
the Turks themselves dispirited and cowed by their
late defeats, and by the desertion of their former
friends ; — we saw their ministers, the paid hirelings
of the enemy of their country, obeying only his
commands ; — we saw their Sultan alienating the
hearts of the most faithful, by well-meant but ill-
judged reforms ; above all, we saw Europe still
careless of the fate of one of the greatest empires
of the world, and we trembled lest she should
awake but too late to ward off the catastrophe
which hung over her. One consolation alone re-
mained ; we knew that if she did awake, the
progress of Russia was stopped ; we knew that
her gigantic power would crumble away, and no-
thing remain, but the hatred of the world for the
falsehood, injustice, and cruelty, by which it had
been raised.
CHAPTER II.
DANUBE FROM MOLDOVA TO ORSOVA.
Babakay. — The Vultures. — Golumbatz. — St. George's Cavern. —
The Rapids. — First Roman Inscription. — Kazan. — New Road.
— Sterbeczu Almare. — Trajan's Tablet. — Via Trajana. — Orsova.
— New Orsova. — The Crusaders. — Visit to the Pasha. — The
Quarantine. — The Iron Gates. — Trajan's Bridge — its History
and Construction. — Valley of the Cserna. — Turkish Aqueduct.
— Mehadia — its Baths and Bathers.
IT was about eight in the morning, when the
good ship Zriny, after bearing us some twenty miles,
while yet snug in our berths, dropped her anchor
and finished her voyage opposite the little town of
Moldova. Preparations were quickly made for our
BABAKAY. 37
re-embarkation, and before the luggage was well
discharged, the passengers of the quarter-deck were
comfortably stowed away in a private boat of Count
Szechenyi's, and in company with several of the
gentlemen employed on the new works, off we set.
The boat was rowed by four stout peasants, lately
broken in to the oar, and steered by George Dewer,
who has been employed in managing the diving-
bell here. After passing the island of Moldova, we
came to an interesting point of the river, marked by
the Babakay rock, which juts out into the middle
of the stream. Babakay is said to mean "repent"
in Turkish, and to have been applied to this spot,
because a jealous old Turk brought over his young
bride, wrhom he suspected of deceiving him, and
placing her on this rock, rowed away, answering
to her cries only, " Babakay ! Babakay ! " — Repent !
Repent ! It is at this point that the new road, of
which we shall speak hereafter, commences. On
the Hungarian shore the workmen were crowding
the hill side, blasting the rocks, wheeling soil, ham-
mering, digging, breaking, — in short, busy in all
the operations incidental to mountain road making.
On the Babakay itself sat three vultures, solemnly
looking on at these unaccustomed sights, while on
the Servian side nothing was to be seen, save the
picturesque towers of the Golumbatz as they
crumbled away into the Danube below.
One of the vultures, as we drew near, raised
itself from its rocky perch, and sailed into the air
38 GOLUMBATZ.
with great majesty. A shot from one of our party
brought him down to the water, while another
secured one of his companions before he had time
to raise himself and take flight. The larger of
them measured nine feet across the wings.
Golumbatz, — a corruption of columba, the castle
of the dove, — is said to have been the prison of
the Greek Empress Helena, and was a point often
strongly contested in the earlier periods of Hunga-
rian history. In 1428, it was besieged by King
Sigismund, who lost the greater part of his army in
the attempt, and who with difficulty escaped with his
own life. It was afterwards taken from the Turks
by Corvinus, and held by the Hungarians, together
with other fortresses in Servia, for some time.
The river, which had been hitherto wide and open,
was now inclosed by high rocks in a narrow bed
only two hundred and forty yards in width. From
this point the most beautiful portion of the scenery
of the Danube commences ; and, however inade-
quately I may describe it, I can assure the reader
that I know of no river scenery in Europe to be
compared with it. The Rhine is pretty and highly
cultivated ; the Danube is wild and awfully grand.
It would be little interesting were 1 to repeat the
exclamations of wonder and admiration which burst
from us during this journey of about fifty English
miles : the whole route is one succession of beauties.
The general character of the scenery is that of rocks
and woods, sometimes rising precipitously from the
THE RAPIDS. 39
banks of the river, sometimes sloping gradually
away; while the mighty mass of water now flows
calmly on its course, and now rushes in a cataract
over the rocks it scarcely covers. I must content
myself with noticing a few of the most interesting
points. Soon after passing Babakay, the boatman
pointed out to us a cavern half-way up the moun-
tain on the Hungarian shore, as the identical cave
of the Dragon slain by St. George, and where, they
say, the foul carcass still decays, and, like Virgil's
ox, gives birth to a host of winged things. What
is certain is, that from this direction, and it is
strictly maintained from this very cave, proceeds the
Golumbatzer Mucken> a peculiar kind of musquito,
which often invades the Banat in swarms, to the
great injury of the flocks and herds. They attack
chiefly the eyes, nose, and ears, and produce such
pain as to drive the animals nearly mad, and
death usually follows.
Stenka was the first of the rapids we passed, and
though in the then state of the water, it was
impracticable for our steam-boat, it is not so in
general, and indeed, while I now write, the place
of debarkation is changed from Moldova to Dren-
kova, a small village a little below the fall. At
Drenkova are some remains of a Roman fort, pro-
bably one of a series of strong places built by
Claudius to protect the river boundaries of the
Roman conquests. The second rapids are those of
Kozla Mare, situated in the midst of such beautiful
40 THE RAPIDS.
scenery, that it is probable the traveller has passed
over them while his attention has been occupied by
the surrounding objects. Just below this point, on
the Servian side, may be observed traces of the
Roman road, of which we shall speak later ; and
above it, is a plain tablet, bearing this mutilated
inscription : —
TR-CAESARE-AVS
AVGVSTO • IMPERATO
PONT • MAX : TR • POT • XXXV
LEG • IIII SCYTH • ET • V • MACEDO.
It is near this point that the most considerable
falls in this part of the Danube begin. They are
formed by a succession of three rapids, the Izlas,
the Taktalia, and the Greben ; in the middle of the
latter, on a projecting rock, a small iron cross
marks the dangerous pass. The navigation has been
somewhat facilitated by a canal cut in the rocky
bed of the stream by means of blasting ; but much
must yet be done before steam-boats can pass over
it at all seasons. During high-water, both the
steam-boats on the Lower Danube have passed these
rapids. The shallowest part is on the Greben,
which we passed with seven feet of water, though
it has been known with only two. Below the
falls the river becomes suddenly wide, and ex-
tends itself to sixteen hundred yards. We met
during this part of our course one or two Turkish
boats slowly toiling up against the stream. A
few Servian villages are scattered here and there,
THE NEW ROAD. 41
and give life to the scene. One founded by Prince
Milosch, and named, after his son, Milanovacz, ap-
pears to prosper, and shows greater symptoms of
comfort than anything we have seen on that side.
At Tricula are the remains of three towers, to
which tradition assigns a Roman origin.
A long reach which presents a beautiful lake-like
view, brought us to Kazan (the Kettle), which, as
the middle-point between Orsova and Moldova, has
been made the residence for the engineers employed
in the construction of the new road. Here we left
our boat and visited the works then in progress,
now happily near completion. The object has been
to form a good carriage-road between Moldova and
Orsova, in order that vessels may be able to tow up
against the stream, and that passengers and goods
may be conveyed by carriages without loss of time
from one steam-boat to another. In several parts
of this track the rocks come close down to the
water's edge, so that it was found necessary to form
galleries in them, a work of great labour and ex-
pense. From Babakay to Alibeg there is six thou-
sand yards of artificial road, and again below
Kazan it extends twelve thousand yards. When
I saw it, it had been two years begun, and 20,000/.
expended. Five hundred men were still employed
on it.
A work of this kind would be great in any coun-
try ; but in Hungary it may be looked upon as
something wonderful, and the greatest credit is due
42 VETERANl'S CAVE.
to Count Szechenyi, who has had the entire direc-
tion of the works, as well as to Mr. Vasarhely the
engineer, that it has been accomplished so speedily
and so well. Without it the navigation of the Da-
nube was closed ; but with it, in addition to the
works contemplated below, there is no impediment
of consequence that can oppose an easy and direct
communication from Ratisbon, in the very heart of
Europe, to the Black Sea. Nay, the projected rail-
road between the Danube and the Rhine will accom-
plish the union of those two rivers, and thus the
great idea of Charlemagne will be fulfilled after the
lapse of so many centuries.
As we walked along the new road, our attention
was directed to a cave about one hundred yards
above the Danube, celebrated in the history of the
Turkish wars. It appears that in 1692, the Aus-
trian General Veterani sent three hundred men un-
der the command of Captain D'Arnan to hold this
cavern against the Turks, whose communications on
the Danube were in consequence almost cut off, for
the position of the cave gave its little garrison the
complete command of the passage of the river,
which is exceedingly narrow here. The Pasha of
Belgrade, roused by the injury this handful of men
inflicted on the Turks, sent an overwhelming force
against them ; but their position, defended with
the greatest bravery, was proof against all at-
tacks, except, alas ! that of hunger, which obliged
them to capitulate after a siege of forty-five days.
STERBECZU ALMARE.
43
Again in 1788, was this little fortress employed
against the Moslems. Major Stein held it for
twenty-one days, with a still smaller number of
troops than before. Some remains of slight out-
works are still left before the entrance of the cave.
The interior is about one hundred feet long by
seventy broad, and has some natural divisions, to
which tradition still attaches names and destina-
tions ; as the officers1 quarters, the powder maga-
zine, and the provision depot.
On the opposite side, and not far from this
cavern, rises a majestic cliff two thousand one hun-
dred and sixty feet in height from the water's edge.
This is the Sterbeczu Almare, the huge bastion of
44
TRAJAN'S TABLET.
the Danube, a glorious monument of Nature's
boldest architecture. After passing Rogach, the
narrowest point of the river, where it is only one
hundred and sixteen yards wide, but sixty deep, and
just opposite the little village of Ogradina, we ar-
rived at the great Tablet of Trajan, the most perfect
historical monument at present existing on the banks
of the Danube. We returned next day to examine
this tablet at our leisure ; but we were still not per-
mitted to get up to it, as it is on the Servian side,
and therefore considered in Sporco. It is cut in
the solid rock, a fine hard mountain limestone, and
is executed with much elegance. A winged genius
on each side supports an oblong tablet protected
by the overhanging rock, which has been carved
into a rich cornice, surmounted by" a Roman eagle.
At either end is a dolphin. The inscription, as it
has been made out by the engineers, runs thus —
IMP • CAESAR • DIVI • NERVAE • F •
NERVA • TRAIANUS • AUG • GERM •
PONTIF • MAXIMVS • TRIE • P • 0 • XXX.
VIA TRAJANA. 45
I must confess I was not able to decipher all
these letters ; but, as it is eight yards from the
water, and obscured by the smoke which the fires
of the Servian fishermen, who often rest here for
the night, have covered it with, it is very possible
that those who could examine it nearer might fol-
low the traces of letters which have escaped less
favoured observers.* The work which this tablet
is intended to immortalize, was no other than the
Via Trajana, as it is called, on some of the Roman
coins of that period, and of which the traces are
frequently visible on different parts of the rocks be-
tween Golumbatz and Orsova, on the Servian bank.
For the most part, the traces of the road now
remaining are reduced to a narrow ledge, varying
from two to six feet in width, cut in the solid rock,
at the height of ten feet above the ordinary water-
mark, and below this ledge, at regular distances,
and in four distinct elevations, as seen in the ac-
companying drawings, are holes of about nine inches
square and eighteen deep. Where the rock hangs
perpendicularly over the river, the ledge and the
holes may be traced very distinctly for a consi-
derable distance without intermission ; at other
places they are interrupted by a sloping bank,
* For this, as well as for the plan of the remains of Trajan's
bridge, I am indebted to a friend in Hungary, who obtained
for me copies of the drawings and plans prepared with great care
by engineers employed in the survey of the Danube. This in-
scription has never, I believe, been so fully made out by any
other observers.
46 VIA TRAJANA.
where an artificial road was no longer required ;
and at others, where a slight chasm in the rocks
made it impossible to continue the ledge, a bridge
seems to have been thrown across. Every one
who takes the trouble to examine this subject,
must conclude that these holes were, beyond quesT
tion, intended to receive beams constructed so as
to support a part of the road made of wood, for
the ledge cut out of the rock was not wide enough,
in many parts, even to admit persons on root, and
certainly not horses. Nor can we suppose that
the ledge in the rock
was once wider, and
that it has been worn
away by time, for the
tablets remain very
perfect, and the holes
below seem as fresh
as if cut yesterday. It
is, then, pretty certain that the Via Trajana was
partly only cut in the rock, and partly supported
on wooden beams.* It would thus answer for a
towing path as well as for the passage of troops —
the two great objects for which it was probably
intended ; and, besides costing much less labour, it
* This opinion I had formed from an inspection of the place
itself. Need I say how much it was strengthened by the plans
subjoined, in which M. Vasdrhely has demonstrated the possibility
of its existence, and shown the probable manner of its construc-
tion. The reader will understand that the wood-work is only
supposititious.
THE WALLACKS.
47
would have possessed, if this supposition is correct,
the advantage of being easily and effectually inter-
rupted in case that pursuit by the barbarians ren-
dered it desirable to cut off the communication.
As we turned from these remains of Roman
greatness to the other side of the river, and again
got on shore, to examine the progress they were
making with the modern road, it was impossible not
to be struck with the resemblance of the Wallack
peasants, who were engaged on it, to the Dacians of
Trajan's column. The dress, the features, and the
whole appearance of the Wallacks, were so Dacian,
that a man fresh from Rome could scarcely fail to
48 ORSOVA.
recognise it. They have the same arched nose,
deeply sunken eye and long hair, the same sheep-
skin cap, the same shirt bound round the waist, and
descending to the knee, and the same long loose
trowsers which the Roman chain is so often seen
encircling at the ankles. It was only required to
change the German or Hungarian overlooker in his
smart hussar uniform, for the soldier of the Roman
legion in his brilliant armour, and we might have
supposed ourselves present at the very scene en-
acted for a similar purpose on the opposite side
of this river seventeen hundred years before !
Orsova, as we saw it next morning, appeared a
pretty little village, situated close on the banks
of the Danube, and fast rising into importance as
the frontier town of Hungary, towards Servia and
Wallachia. In addition to the money spent here
by travellers, the custom-house and quarantine esta-
blishments necessarily give it greater advantages
than are possessed by most Hungarian places of its
size. At a little distance from the town, too, there
is a small covered market, where the Turks and
Servians bring their wares for sale ; and though
divided by rails, and closely guarded by the quaran-
tine officers in order to prevent contamination, they
carry on a considerable traffic in pipe-heads, Turkish
sweetmeats, fruits, ornaments, and other small
articles. The quarantine establishment was nearly
empty at the time we visited Orsova, and we were
shown over the whole of it. It cannot be said to
NEW ORSOVA. 49
be pleasant to pass such a length of time in confine-
ment anywhere; but I know of few places where
it would be more tolerable than at Orsova. A
small court is attached to each set of apartments;
and, attended by a guard, permission is usually
granted to walk over the whole place.
A mile below Orsova, and in the middle of the
Danube, lies the pretty island of New Orsova, a
Turkish fortress, now, alas ! somewhat dilapidated,
like everything else Turkish ; though, scarcely a
century ago, it was of sufficient strength to have
occupied the Emperor Joseph II. a considerable
time to batter it effectually from the opposite
mountains. It is said to have been at this point
that the great crusade of 1396, under the Conne'table
d'Eu and Sigismund of Hungary, after descending
the Danube from Buda to Orsova, passed over to
the island, and so across to the Turkish side. One
hundred thousand horsemen, among whom were the
flower of the French chivalry, seemed to give an
assurance of easy victory; and as Sigismund marked
their close and well-ordered ranks, he insolently
exclaimed, " With such an army, I can brave the
world; their spears would uphold the canopy of
heaven itself, should it threaten to fall upon us ! "
The impious boast was bitterly atoned for. In a
very few days the plain of Nicopolis witnessed the
complete dispersion of this host, and the noblest
and bravest of them dead, or captives in the hands
of Bajazeth.
VOL. II. E
50
VISIT TO THE PASHA.
We were fortunate enough to obtain permission
from the Herr Cordons Commandant to visit the
Pasha of Orsova; and, accompanied by a custom-
house officer, apparently to enable us to smuggle
with impunity, and another from the quarantine to
prevent our catching the plague in any but the
prescribed form, we embarked for the island. About
half an hour's row down the stream, brought us
under the low and crumbling walls of the fortress;
and one of our attendants, acting as interpreter,
hailed a magnificent looking fellow, who was loung-
ing about very nonchalantly, — but who was neverthe-
less a Turkish sentinel on duty — and desired him to
inform the Pasha of our request for an audience.
In the meantime we landed, and pursued our way
over broken walls and through filled-up ditches to
the Pasha's house ; and a strange-looking pile we
THE PASHA'S HOUSE. 51
found it. The lower part is formed of a solid tower
of stone, probably the remains of some Gothic
stronghold, while the upper story is only a wooden
l)ox, after the common fashion of Turkish houses,
overhanging its base in every direction, and in its
turn covered by a vast umbrella-like roof. Our
request was courteously received, and we were
ushered up a broad flight of steps outside the build-
ing, and between long rows of bare-footed servants,
to the audience chamber. Here we found the Pasha
ready to receive us, and after sundry bows on our
parts and pressings of the hand to the heart on his,
we took our seats opposite each other, on some very
common, rush-bottomed chairs. These were evi-
dently used as a compliment to us; for they appeared
a troublesome luxury to our host, whose legs were
either dangling awkwardly in mid-air, or perched on
the highest stave in anything but an elegant position.
He was a handsome good-tempered looking man, of
about forty, with a fine red beard curling over his
breast. He was far enough from the capital in his
snug little island, to dispense with the caricature
of a uniform worn in Constantinople, and his
costume of embroidered cloth lined with fur, was
simple and handsome. He inquired with much
anxiety if we had brought our pipes, and seemed
very much annoyed at our guides for not having
informed us that a recent firman had forbidden
any Pasha to offer pipes to strangers. This arrange-
ment had been adopted to relieve the Pashas from
E2
52 VISIT TO THE PASHA.
the expense of maintaining a great pipe establish-
ment, the cost of which was sufficient to ruin some
of the poorer of them. I believe it has been given
up since. It was in vain we protested that we did
not smoke in the morning ; when the poor Pasha
received his splendid chibouque he drew a long
whiff or two, but it failed to soothe his wounded
sense of hospitality, and he protested he could
not smoke unless we did so too. At last, plague
or no plague, he insisted on each of us smoking
from his own pipe ; nor was it till the pale lemon-
coloured amber had been pressed in turn by every
lip, and the muddy coffee had been duly drunk,
that he felt sufficiently at ease to begin a con-
versation.
I am not going to give the reader the Pasha's
sage remarks — that is, remarks of my own, which I
think sufficiently sage to be palmed off as a Pasha's,
— as many writers in these modern times are apt
to do, often too when they have not understood one
word of the language spoken ; and it is not worth
while repeating the commonplaces our interpreter
passed between us. The Pasha inquired about the
progress of the works at Kazan, whether the bridge
was begun at Pest, and how many steam-boats were
building, occasionally stopping to assure us how
great was his pleasure at our visit, and occasionally
bursting into a hearty laugh at the fear our at-
tendants expressed lest we might touch something
capable of communicating plague, and that too after
NEW ORSOVA. 53
smoking the pipe he had just used. As in every
Turk, — and almost in every man who is free from
affectation and servility, — his manners were easy
and dignified ; and as we took leave, much pleased
with our visit, he invited us to go through the town,
and gave orders that we should see the mosque and
anything else we chose.
The town, which consists of four streets built in
the form of a cross, is as completely Turkish as
anything in Constantinople ; it is, in fact, a little
epitome of the whole empire. The same filthy
narrow streets, the same coffee-houses with their
eternal loungers drawing deep draughts of pleasure
from the bubbling nargile or long chibouque, the
open shops, the carpeted mosque with its slender
minaret, and the pretty burial-ground with its tur-
baned head-stones, as are to be seen in every other
part of Turkey ; — nay, the very dogs are the same
snarling ill-bred mangy curs which the sons of
Mahomet use as scavengers wherever their sway is
felt. It was amusing to see with what officiousness
our quarantine man began to exercise his stick on
all the poor animals which crossed his path, but an
obstinate hen very nearly got the master of him not-
withstanding, and we were obliged to run into
another street lest a chance feather from her wing
should condemn us to a fortnight's quarantine.
Heartily did the good-humoured Turks shake their
sides to see half a dozen poor Christians in flight
before a cackling hen ! We were allowed, ho*wever,
54 NEW ORSOVA.
to purchase some pipe-heads from Servia, — more
beautiful than any to be found at Constantinople,—
probably from some little arrangement between the
Turk and Christian for fleecing the stranger, for as
we went away, I saw our guide put one into his own
pocket, for which nothing was paid, save a nod of
understanding between himself and the merchant.
The most insensible can hardly fail to admire the
scenery about Orsova ; the island, the Elizabeth
Tower on the opposite bank, the Alion with its
wooded sides, and the expanse of water itself, are
beauties of no common order. From the passing
view we had of some Servian peasants, they seemed
to resemble the Wallacks in their dress. The
women often cover their heads with strings of gold
and silver coins till they assume the appearance of
scale-helmets.
Another excursion I made from Orsova was to
visit the Iron Gates of the Danube, and the re-
mains of Trajan's bridge. As these objects are in
Wallachia, it was necessary again to obtain permis-
sion, and to be accompanied by quarantine and
custom-house officers. Having provided two light
waggons with four horses in each, we followed the
banks of the Danube, passed the Island of Orsova,
crossed the boundary line of Hungary, arid con-
tinued along a road cut in the side of the mountain,
amidst the most beautiful scenery, till the roar of
the waters informed us we were approaching the
much-dreaded cataracts of the Iron Gates.
THE IRON GATES.
55
A bad name is a bad thing ; the Black Sea is still
an object of terror at Lloyd's, though its navigation
is safer than the generality of European seas, and
the Iron Gates were long considered an irresistible
bar to commerce on the Danube, though the peasant
pilots of Orsova never hesitate, in proper seasons, to
shoot them with as clumsy ill-constructed vessels as
can well be made. These rapids, for such is their
proper designation, continue under different names
for about a quarter of a mile, and it is the most east-
ern portion which is properly called the Iron Gates,
or, by the Turks, Demirkapi. At this point a ledge
of rocks runs quite across the river, the highest part
56 THE IRON GATES.
of which, though just covered in the ordinary state
of the water, is yet sufficiently evident, and pro-
duces a fall of several feet, which is followed by
an eddy which might prove dangerous to very small
craft. The shallowness of the water is, however,
the most serious obstacle, and at certain seasons
this is so extreme as to put a stop to navigation
entirely. Two plans have been conceived for re-
medying this evil : and it has been proposed either
to blast the rocks, a difficult and expensive pro-
cess, or to form a canal along the Servian bank.
Very fortunately, at this point the rocks, instead
of coming down close to the edge of the water,
leave a small surface of flat land, round which it
is proposed to carry a canal ; and here, it is said,
remains still exist of a canal made by the Romans
for the very same purpose. As I was not able to
verify this report by actual inspection, I cannot
state it to be positively true ; but as the Via
Trajana was continued in this direction, and was
pretty certainly used as a towing path, I think
there can be little doubt of the fact. What ob-
stacle impedes the commencement of this canal I
know not, but fortunately the steam navigation is
independent of it, for the boats come up to Scala
Gladova without impediment, and goods and pas-
sengers are thence conveyed by boat or carriage
to Orsova, so that, were the road better, the ab-
sence of the canal would be of little consequence.
Nor is this interruption of so great importance as
TRAJAN'S BRIDGE. 57
it would be in any other position, for a delay is
necessarily caused, in passing from the one country
to the other, by the quarantine, customs, and police
regulations.
As we turned back to take a last view of the
dreaded pass, a heavy Turkish boat, with its lattine
sails approached, and we had an opportunity, of
watching it pass the rapids. The sails were furled
and a large oar was put out to aid the helm ; the
only effects we could observe were, a slight trem-
bling of the mast, a sudden shoot over the rocks,
a little reeling in the eddy, and she then passed
on her course as tranquilly as though nothing had
happened.
The banks of the Danube now became flat and
uninteresting, — Scala Gladova, through which our
route led us, is a very miserable little Wallachian
town only remarkable because the steam-boats stop
there, — and we were very thankful when our twenty
miles' drive was over and we found ourselves at the
remains of Trajan's bridge. All that is now left of
this structure is a solid shapeless mass of masonry
on either bank, about twenty feet high, and be-
tween that and the river there is, on each side,
a broken wall on a level with the top of the banks,
apparently forming the piers from which the first
arches sprang. On both sides, the banks are of a
considerable height aj)ove the water. In the bed
of the river, and in a direct line between these
ruins, the surveyors have traced the remains of
58
TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.
thirteen pillars. Not far from the middle, as will
be seen by the plan, a kind of island has been
formed, which occupies the space of four pillars,
and on the northern bank there is a second space,
apparently filled up by deposit, whicli leaves room
for one other pillar, thus making, in addition to
those on the bank, twenty. The distance between
the pillars on either bank is five hundred and sixty-
two Vienna klafters, or about three thousand nine
TRAJAN'S BRIDGE. 59
hundred English feet. The pillar on the north
bank, which I sketched, is not built of hewn stones,
but of a mass of shapeless materials joined together
with Roman cement. It may have been encased
in hewn stone, which has been removed or de-
stroyed. This is all I could observe or learn of
the actual state of the remains of Trajan's bridge.
The water, though not high, was sufficiently so to
prevent even a ripple appearing on the surface,
where it flowed over the hidden pillars, but, as
may be seen by the plan, in which the upper line
indicates the common height of the water, and the
lower its state in 1834, the tops of several pillars
are sometimes visible. On the Wallachian side, a
little before we reached the ruin, we observed the
remains of a tower which had been surrounded by
a deep and wide fosse. Nothing remains of the
tower to indicate its origin or form ; but the fosse,
if I remember right, is circular. It was probably
intended to defend the passage of the bridge.
Now let us inquire, for a moment, what informa-
tion ancient authorities afford us concerning this
great work. Dion Cassius, who was governor of part
of Pannonia under Hadrian, the successor of Trajan,
wrote a history of Rome down to his own time.
A considerable part of this history is lost, and among
other portions the account of Trajan's bridge ; but
an epitome of his works by Ziphilini still exists,
which contains a short description of it. It was
built by Apollodorus, the architect of the Forum
COIN OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.
Trajanum, and of Trajan's column at Rome, and
consisted of twenty piers, each pier being one hun-
dred and fifty Roman feet high, sixty feet thick,
and they were one hundred and seventy feet dis-
tant from each other. At either end it was pro-
tected by towers. The whole work is said to have
been built of hewn stone, and the real difficulties
of so vast an undertaking are enhanced by a false
account of the situation, depth of water, nature
of the soil, and other particulars.*
The second authority is the large copper coin of
Trajan, containing on the reverse a bridge. From
this coin it would rather ap-
pear that the towers were at
the entrances of the bridge,
and that they had somewhat
the appearance of triumphal
arches. The figures of men
are very discernible on both
of them. The arch — as is
often the case in coins bear-
ing figures of buildings, a part being put to re-
present the whole, — appears to me, as well as
to others who have examined it with me, to be
* I should remark, that this is one of the widest parts of the
river, and was, no doubt, on that account, chosen by the architect
to allow the force of the sudden floods to which the Danube is
subject, on the breaking up of the ice, to waste itself on an ex-
tended surface, The bed of the river, instead of answering the
description of Dion Cassius, is sound, and the depth here less
than in most other parts.
TRAJAN'S BRIDGE. Gl
composed of wood, though the piers are undoubtedly
of stone.*
Besides this, we have a third authority in the
column of Trajan, where a part of the bridge is
represented in the back ground, and again the upper
portion appears, I think, to be decidedly of wood ;
in fact, the cross bars and rails are exactly like
those uniting the bridges of boats, by which the
Roman army is often seen crossing rivers during
their march to Dacia. I need scarcely say, that the
idea of the wooden projection of the Via Trajana
strengthens the supposition of a similar construc-
tion in the Pons Trajani. The bridge was probably
begun about 103, A.D. ; it was destroyed about 120.
Before we quit the subject, one word on the
destruction of the bridge. Hadrian, it appears,
anxious to enjoy in peace the conquests of his pre-
decessor, intended to give up the newly-founded
province of Dacia ; in consequence, however, of the
number of Roman colonists already established
there, he was persuaded to retain it ; but, as it is
said, to prevent the barbarians crossing over into the
Thracian provinces, he destroyed the bridge across
the Danube. I cannot help thinking that personal
feeling had some connection with this affair; it
seems at least so impolitic to retain the province,
and yet cut off the only safe and sure communica-
* This opinion, I find, is supported by Marsigli, Fabretti, and
Montfaucon, who make very light of the exaggerations of Dion
Cassias.
62 TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.
tion with it, that one is naturally led to look for
other motives than those generally ascribed for the
destruction of this bridge. Now it appears that
Apollodorus had given mortal offence to Hadrian
when a young soldier in the camp of Trajan, by
desiring him to " paint gourds " (an amusement to
which he was addicted), " and not to speak of mat-
ters he did not understand," on occasion of some
silly remarks offered by the future Emperor con-
cerning the plans which the architect was displaying
to his royal master. This insult, sharpened by the
jealousy which Hadrian felt of the artist's talents,
was never forgiven, and no sooner did he assume
the purple than he banished Apollodorus, and finally
had him put to death on some false pretence. A
man whose cruel revenge was capable of demanding
the destruction of a great artist, would scarcely be
inclined to spare that artist's most esteemed work,
— his surest claim to the gratitude and remem-
brance of posterity ; and 1 think it highly probable,
that Trajan's greatest glory fell a sacrifice to Ha-
drian's meanest passion.
On our return to Orsova, we found that a fisher-
man had just captured an enormous sturgeon, — so
large that when placed in one of the small waggons
of the country, its tail dragged along the ground
behind. It was taken to the village fountain, washed,
cut up, and speedily sold to the peasants. The
sturgeon is said to be abundant in this part of
the Danube, and to attain a large size, but it is
STURGEON AND CAVIARE. 63
not equal in delicacy of flavour to the small stur-
geon of the Theiss. Fresh caviare gourmands may
satisfy their longings here as well as in the regions
of the Wolga or the Don. In Wallachia, the pre-
paration of the hard caviare is much cared for, and
most of that met with at Constantinople is obtain-
ed from thence. Nothing can be ruder than the
Wallack mode of fishing. A long string of floats
stoutly fastened together, support a number of huge
hooks which hang at different depths in the water
without baits, but so placed as to hook the fish as
he swims by. Angling as an amusement is rarely
followed in Hungary, but from the quantity of trout
met with on the table, I should think it might
afford good sport.
It was a fine autumn afternoon when we left
Orsova, and following the valley of the Cserna,
closely hemmed in by its wooded hills, pursued our
way to Mehadia. The groups of Wallack women, as
we saw them in the evening assembled round their
cottage doors, or returning home from the labours
of the field, were too peculiar to escape the ob-
servation, and sometimes admiration of strangers.
Their dress, like the men's, rather Dacian, consists
of the homespun linen shirt, fastened close round
the neck, and reaching down to the ankles. At the
sleeves, and round the collar, it is often prettily em-
broidered in blue and red. Before and behind they
wear a coarse woollen apron of different colours,
the lower part of which is commonly a mere fringe
G4 MULBERRY PLANTATIONS.
and such, with a coloured fillet bound round the
head, is the only summer covering of the Wallack
women. No dress was ever less adapted to conceal
the form ; the close-fitting apron seems rather in-
tended to display to the greatest advantage the
Venus-like proportions of the figure ; nor are the
beauties of the youthful bust less delicately out-
lined by the tight linen shirt.
We met some twenty or thirty of the Borderers
on march to relieve the guard on duty at some
distant post, where they would have to remain for
a week. They were exceedingly well dressed, and
had quite the appearance of regular troops.
In many parts of this valley the road is adorned
by avenues of the white mulberry. I think it was
under Maria Theresa that the idea of cultivating
silk in Hungary was first started, and several at-
tempts were subsequently made in different parts
of the country with considerable success. In 1811,
Government planted the Banat military frontier
with mulberries, in the hope of being able to feed
the worm on the tree, but I believe the experiment
did not succeed, though it is difficult to say from
what cause. A great number of landowners are
now planting the mulberry in different parts of
Hungary, and it is highly probable that silk will,
ere long, be one of the staple commodities of the
country.
Near Topletz are the ruins of an aqueduct, which
formerly extended from the baths of Mehadia to
TURKISH AQUEDUCT. 65
Orsova. No one who has seen the Turkish aque-
ducts near Constantinople, can doubt as to the
origin of this one; it is clearly of Turkish and
not Roman workmanship. Its object was probably
to convey the medicated waters of Mehadia to the
village of Orsova which was for many years the
residence of a Pasha, and an important Turkish
fortress.
About ten miles from Orsova we quitted the
main valley, and pursuing the course of the Cser-
na, entered the valley of Mehadia, in which the
baths of Mehadia are situated. It was now past
the bathing season, and we were the only strangers
VOL. n. F
66 MEHADIA.
there ; but the reader must allow me to transport
him back to the gaiety of July, in which month I
visited it on another occasion.
The baths consist of a number of handsome build-
ings round an oval place, furnished with seats, and
commonly enlivened by music and loungers. The
valley is so exceedingly narrow, that there was but
just room to build these houses ; nor have they
been erected without a sacrifice of the romantic
scenery. The large building to the right was con-
structed by the Emperor Francis, and it is let out
at certain fixed and very moderate prices as an
hotel, while the lower part contains baths.
The antiquity of the Hercules Baths are beyond
question. Many votive tablets and statues suffi-
ciently attest that they were dedicated to Hercules
and that they were known to the Romans as early
as the reign of Hadrian, with whom they were in
high repute for their medicinal virtues.
From June to September these baths are the
favourite resort of the Hungarians and Transylva-
nians, and, besides receiving occasionally members of
every other part of the Austrian dominions, a rich
Boyard from Wallachia, an uncouth prince from
Servia, and a vagabond Englishman, may often be
seen mingling with the gay groups on the evening
promenade. An Englishman must almost have
ceased to be a wonder now, but it is not very long
since some pretty little Banatians were terribly
scolded by mamma for running out to get a peep
MEHADIA. 67
at an islander, a sort of thing, as they urged in ex-
cuse, they had never seen in their lives before, and
which they were not a little disappointed to find
so much like other human beings.
There are few bathing-places can boast so really
beautiful a neighbourhood as this ; for several miles
up the valley, where a foot-path has been cut
through the woods, nothing can be more exqui-
sitely lovely than the scenery. And then, there
are mountains to ascend, a real robber's cave to
explore, a little waterfall to visit, besides excur-
sions, to I know not how many wonderful places
in the neighbourhood, to be made. But the white
precipitous rocks, which make the valley so pic-
turesque, render it excessively close, and in July
and August it is scarcely possible to move out in
the day-time. These same rocks, however, are not
to be scorned, for they are so high and close as
to produce an early sunset, and thus leave a long
cool twilight for the promenade. So much greater
is the heat in this valley than elsewhere, that the
tarantula and scorpion, unknown in other parts of
Hungary, are far from uncommon.
Beautiful, however, as Mehadia is, its beauty will
not please for ever ; as is often the case with other
beauties, its appearance is useful as an attraction,
but it requires other qualities to keep alive our in-
terest in them. It maybe an effectual cure,* as the
* There are nine different springs here in use, each varying con-
siderably in the proportions of their mineral contents, as given by
F 2
68 MEHADIA.
doctors vouch, for an infinity of human ills, but to a
healthy man, a long residence there is apt to induce
one as bad as any in the list — ennui. In the morning
it is de rigueur to parboil yourself in the fetid waters,
from which you escape so exhausted, that leaning
out of the window and watching your neighbour
enjoying the same recreation, is all you are capable
of. At one the gentlemen meet at the table d'hote,
— the ladies generally dine in their own rooms,—
and consume a very indifferent dinner, notwith-
standing the eulogies of some travellers just escaped
from quarantine diet. Till six the time must still
be killed. A little quiet gambling is generally
chemical analysis. They have all, however, more or less, the
same ingredients, of which the chief are muriates of soda and
lime, sulphate of lime, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, nitrogen gas,
and carhonic acid gas, except the Hercules bath, which contains
no sulphuretted hydrogen. The temperature varies in the dif-
ferent springs from 32° to 50° of Reaumur, but a cooling appa-
ratus enables one to regulate the temperature at will. Mehadia
is considered in Hungary as the very first in the healing powers
of its waters, It is particularly recommended in indolent skin
diseases, in cases of gout in all its forms, chronic rheumatism,
scrofula, chronic diseases of the joints, complicated mercurial
affections, old liver complaints, in all that prolific class called
Verstopfungen by the Germans, hysteria, hypochondria, and many
other of the opprobria medica. An eye-bath is arranged so that
the eye may be exposed to the hot mineral vapour, and is much
used in chronic affections of that organ. Nothing but experience
can decide on the credit due to mineral waters in diseases, but on
the healthy body I do not think I ever felt any produce a greater
effect than these : the weakness and profuse perspiration which
follows the bath is extreme. — Vide Die Hercules Bader bei
Mehadia, von J. G. Schwarzott.
MEHADIA. 69
transacted about this time, by such as have a taste
for it, and smoking too was a great resource,
especially after some cosmopolite Turks had phil-
anthropically established themselves in one corner
of the place with a large stock of chibouques and
Latakia, to the great edification of all honest Chris-
tians who loved good tobacco. At six, the beau
monde makes its appearance, the gipsy band strikes
up its joyous notes, and till eight the promenade
of Mehadia is gay with music and beauty. A bad
German theatre and an occasional ball add to the
amusements of those who like them, but there is
a want of some common place of re-union, which
prevents the society coming together as much as
it otherwise would.
The deficiency of accommodation here is a cry-
ing evil, and new arrivals are not unfrequently
obliged to sleep on tables and chairs in the public
dining-room. On returning to my room one night,
rather late, I found the whole passage covered with
mattresses on which were stretched some dozen
human figures ; many of whom were young and very
pretty girls of the middle class, some of them un-
fortunate cripples, and all freshly arrived, and thank-
ful even for this shelter. In this condition they re-
mained a week before they could procure rooms.
The political economist in such a case would
quietly fold his arms and say the supply will be re-
gulated by the demand, and so it might elsewhere,
but Mehadia is on the military frontiers, and conse-
70
MEHADIA.
quently under the administration of the Kammer,
which, with its usual forethought and good sense
refuses permission to any private individual to build
an hotel, except on condition that no one shall
enter it till all the present accommodations are
occupied, for fear of injuring the present proprietors.
This is an instance of the advantages accruing from
the excessive care of a paternal government : here
it deprives its poor children of a comfortable lodging
—would to God it never deprived them of still
more important blessings !
VALLEY OF MEHADIA.
SZEGEDIN. 71
CHAPTER III.
BANAT.*
Szegedin. — The Banat — its History. — Fertility. — State of
Agriculture. — Climate. — Mines. — Population. — Prosperous
Villages. — The Peasant and the Bishop of Agram. — The New
Urbarium. — The Kammeral Administration. — Temesvar. —
Roads. — Baron Wenkheim's Reforms. — A Wolf Hunt.
IT was by Szegedin that we entered this El Do-
rado— this land of promise for Christianized Jews,
and ennobled Greeks. Szegedin is itself one of the
most disagreeable towns in Hungary; its streets
are wide, and traversed by planks, which, however
useful they may be in keeping people on foot
out of the muddy abyss on each side, are par-
ticularly unpleasant to those who are bumped over
them to the imminent hazard of their carriage-
springs. The houses look damp and deserted ; and
the ruins of the old fortress, which once commanded
the passage of the Theiss, add to the desolation,
without increasing the beauty of the place. I
doubt, however, if Szegedin really merits the cha-
* Though not directly in our present route, I have thought it
best to take the whole of the Banat together, that I might give a
more complete idea of its position and extent.
72 SZEGEDIN.
racter which, perhaps, my feelings have associated
with it: a dull day, or his own ill-humour, often
give a most incorrect colouring to the passing
traveller's observations. It is, in fact, a town of
considerable traffic, with which its situation, at
the confluence of two such rivers as the Theiss
and Maros, has naturally endowed it.
It was Sunday when we passed ; and, among the
holiday-makers, I remarked what I suspect to be
a remnant of Turkish habits. The women of the
lower classes wore slippers without heels, fancifully
worked on the front in silk or worsted ; just, in
fact, the in-door chaussure of the ladies of Con-
stantinople. Beyond the town, the Maros had
overflowed its banks, and formed an immense lake,
extending for several miles to the south. This
appeared, however, so frequent an occurrence, as
to have induced the people to provide against it,
for we passed through the waters on a good raised
road to Szb'reg.
Our route from thence to Temesvar, lay through
a flat, and often swampy country ; but at the same
time so overladen with the riches of production
that I do not recollect ever to have seen so luxu-
riant a prospect in any other part of the world. It
was the month of July, and the harvest was already
begun. Every field was waving with the bright yel-
low corn, often so full in the head as to have sunk
under its own weight, and the whole plain seemed
alive with labourers, though apparently there were
PRODUCTIONS OF THE BANAT. 73
not half the number required for the work before
them.
The Banat is a district in the south-east corner
of Hungary, lying between the Theiss, Maros, and
Danube, and containing the three counties of Tho-
rontal, Temesvar, and Krasso. It is not one hun-
dred years since the Turks were in possession of
this province ; and it was not till the close of the
last century, that it was entirely free from Mos-
lem incursion. Those who have visited any of the
countries under the Ottoman rule, will easily un-
derstand the wild and savage state in which this
beautiful land then was. The philanthropic Joseph
II. determined to render it equally populous and
civilized with the rest of Hungary. From the
flatness of a large portion of the surface, and from
the quantity of rivers by which it is watered, im-
mense morasses were formed, which tainted the
air, and made it really then what some French
writer now undeservedly calls it "le tombeau des
etrangers" To tempt settlers, the land was sold at
exceedingly moderate prices ; and Germans, Greeks,
Turks, Servians, Wallacks, nay, even French and
Italians, were brought over to people this luxuriant
wilderness. The soil, a rich black loam, hitherto
untouched by the plough, yielded the most extra-
ordinary produce. Fortunes were rapidly made ;
and, at the present day, some of the wealthiest of
the Hungarian gentry were, half a century ago,
poor adventurers in the Banat.
74 PRODUCTIONS OF THE BANAT.
To those who have never lived in any but an
old country, the soil of which is impoverished by
the use of many ages, it is difficult to believe what
riches are hidden in untilled ground. The produc-
tive powers of a naturally good soil, deposited by
swamps and rivers, when heightened by a climate
more nearly tropical than temperate, are wonder-
ful. The same crops are here repeated year after
year, on the same spots ; the ground is only once
turned up to receive the seed ; a fallow is un-
known ; manure is never used, but is thrown away
as injurious; and yet with the greatest care and
labour in other places, I never saw such abund-
ant produce as ill-treated unaided Nature here
bestows upon her children. Except the olive and
orange, there is scarcely a product of Europe which
does not thrive in the Banat. I do not know
that I can enumerate all the kinds of crop raised ;
but, among others, are wheat, barley, oats, rye,
rice, maize, flax, hemp, rape, sun-flowers (for oil),
tobacco of different kinds, wine, and silk, — nay,
even cotton, tried as an experiment, is said to have
succeeded.
All through Hungary, the state of agriculture,
among the peasantry, is in a very primitive state.
In the poorer parts, they allow the ground to fallow
every other year, and sometimes manure it, though
rarely. As for changing the crops, that is little
attended to. Here they will continue year after
year the same thing, without its making any appa-
CLIMATE. 75
rent difference. Nowhere are the agricultural in-
struments of a ruder form, or more inefficiently em-
ployed than in the Banat. The plough is generally
a simple one-handled instrument, heavy, and ill
adapted for penetrating deeply into the soil. The
fork is merely a branch of a tree, which happened
to fork naturally, and which is peeled and sharp-
ened for use. The corn is rarely stacked, being com-
monly trodden out by horses as soon as it is cut. In
the Wallack villages, notwithstanding the capabili-
ties of the soil, maize is almost the only crop culti-
vated. Barley is rarely found in any part of Hun-
gary ; and, strange to say, where so many horses are
kept, horse-beans are unknown. Green crops, ex-
cept among a few agricultural reformers, are com-
pletely neglected. The crop of hay is commonly
cut twice in a season. I do not remember ever to
have seen irrigation practised, though there are few
countries in which it would be productive of greater
advantages.
The climate of the Banat, in summer, approaches
nearly to that of Italy ; but the winter, though less
inclement than in the rest of Hungary, is still too
long and severe for the olive or the orange. Even
in summer, the nights are often intensely cold.
After the hottest day, the sun no sooner sets than
a cool breeze rises, refreshing at first, but which
becomes dangerous to those who are unprepared for
it. The Hungarian never travels without his fur or
sheep-skin coat; and the want of such a defence
76 MINES.
is often the cause of fever to the unsuspecting
stranger.
The scenery of the Banat is extremely various ;
from the flat plains of Thorontal to the snowy
mountains of Krasso, almost every variety may
be found which the lover of Nature can desire.
The rare, though seldom visited, beauties of the
Maros, the smiling neighbourhood of Lugos, the
darker attractions of the Cserna and the Reka,
and the fine woods and pretty streams with
which the Banat abounds, may justly entitle it
to boast itself among the most favoured parts of
Hungary.
The mines of the Banat, though of great an-
tiquity,* and still worked, are less productive than
those of the north. Near Qrawitza, coal has been
found, and is now in use for the steam-boats, which
the English engineers declare to be in no way in-
ferior to the best Newcastle. The Banat mines are
worked chiefly for copper, lead, tin, and zinc : of
copper, about 7,000 cent, are annually produced;
of lead, about 2,000 cent. ; and of zinc, about 500
cent. The quantity of iron obtained I could not
ascertain. About five thousand miners are em-
ployed. It is a curious fact that, owing it is
said to mal-administration, the coal is as dear as
that obtained from England via Constantinople,
notwithstanding the distance of carriage.
* Some time since a silver coin was found, indicating the date
at which these mines were first worked by the Romans.
INHABITANTS. 77
But one of the most curious features of the
Banat is the motley appearance of its inhabitants,
who, as the different races are generally in distinct
villages, have preserved their national character-
istics quite pure. In one village which, from the
superiority of its buildings, and from the large
and handsome school-house, you at once recognise
to be German, you still see the old-fashioned
costume of the Bavarian broom-girl, and the light
blue eyes and sandy hair of their colder father-
land. A few miles off, you enter a place formed
only of the wooden hovels of the Wallacks ; and
here, though it is in the midst of harvest, you
find a number of lazy fellows lying about their
doors, while their half-robed wives amuse them-
selves with an occupation about their husbands'
heads, for which the English language has no
word fit for ears polite. The languages are pre-
served as pure as other nationalisms ; and though
the German can often speak Wallachian, you may
be quite sure that the Wallack can only speak
his own barbarous tongue. The Magyar and the
Ratz, are equally characteristic and distinct. In
one place, I think Kanisa, on finding the drivers
spoke neither German, Hungarian, nor Wallack —
for the ear soon teaches one to distinguish these
languages — I inquired of a respectable-looking per-
son, who was standing in the inn-yard, from whence
they were? "Bulgarians," he answered in German:
" and it is just one hundred years since they left
78 PROSPERITY.
Turkey, and established themselves on this spot,
under the protection of the Emperor." The size
of the village, and the appearance of the houses,
sufficiently bespoke them to be a prosperous and
flourishing colony.
In some places, people of two or three nations
are mixed together, and it not unfrequently hap-
pens, that next door neighbours cannot under-
stand each other. The different nations rarely
intermarry, — a Magyar with a Wallack, never. I
do not here enter into the manners or customs
of the inhabitants of the Banat, because every
nation retains its own, and most of these, except
the Wallacks, we have already spoken of, and of
them we shall say more when we get into Tran-
sylvania.
It is scarcely possible, in passing through some
of the German villages of the Banat, such for in-
stance as Hatzfeld, not to exclaim as a Scotch friend
of mine did, " Would to God our own people could
enjoy the prosperity in which these peasants live."
It is, in fact, impossible to imagine those who live
by the labour of their hands, enjoying more of the
material good things of the world than they do. In
addition to the richest land in the country, the
Banat peasant has many privileges peculiar to him-
self, conferred when it was an object to attract
settlers from other districts, and these he still pre-
serves. Among other things he is free from the
"long journeys," the "hunting," the " spinning," the
THE PEASANT'S COMPLAINTS. 79
" chopping and carrying of wood," and from the
tithe of fruit and vegetables. He has, moreover,
free rights of fishing, of cutting reeds, and feeding
his pigs, and gathering sticks in his master's forests,
many of which, though trifling in themselves, give
to the sober and industrious peasant, a great oppor-
tunity to improve his position. But, more than all,
he has the liberty to redeem half his days of labour,
at the rate of ten kreutzers, or five pence per day, an
advantage of which he never fails to avail himself.
From the last station, before we arrived at Te-
inesvar, a German peasant wras our driver, who, on
inquiring to whom the village, Billiet, belonged,
shook his head, and said, " The Bishop of Agram."
I was sure that portentous shake of the head meant
something sorrowful ; and, as I never yet saw man
in sorrow that did not wish to tell his woes, I knew
I had only to encourage him, to get it all out ; and
accordingly, from an inquiring look, he took courage,
pulled his horses up to a walk, and, turning half-
round on the box, began, " Why, sir, Billiet, and
many other villages round here belong to the Bishop
of Agram, who lives a long way off, and keeps his
prefects here. Now, sir, this year the crops are
very heavy, so the prefect comes with the new ur-
barium, and says, ' I have the right to order you
peasants to send from each house two men four
days in each week during the harvest, that the
corn may be the sooner in, and accordingly, I ex-
pect you to obey/ But in our village, as indeed in
80 THE PEASANT'S COMPLAINTS.
all others, this urbarium is kept, and many have
read it carefully, and found nothing of the sort
in it; for, on the contrary, it is stated that a pea-
sant holding an entire fief must send in harvest time
one man for four days in two weeks, only, but then
no more can be demanded for a fortnight. And
so, sir, the Biro thought also, and he goes to the
prefect to tell him his orders were unjust, and that
he could not put them into execution. With that
the prefect flies into a passion, tells the judge his
business is to do what is ordered, not to bother his
head about what he does not understand, and calls
him a rogue, and other bad names which he did not
deserve, for he is a very honest man, and respected
by all the village. Determined not to suffer such
an insult, the Biro replied that he neither could
nor would act against the law and his conscience,
and said that if he was a rogue, he could be no fit
person to execute any longer the duties of Biro,
and he therefore begged to lay down his stick of
office. The next day the prefect sent orders to the
peasants to elect a new Biro, but the peasants re-
chose their former one, declaring that they would
obey no other; and so at present the affair stands,
no one knowing how it will terminate."
All these misfortunes, the poor fellow seemed to
think came from living under a bishop, and he
complained sadly that the Emperor had so soon
given them another after the. death of the last.
" We had hardly done rejoicing that our old Bishop
THE RAMMER. 81
was dead," he continued, " when a new one came
in his place."
It is a prerogative of the Hungarian crown to
retain the revenue of a bishopric for three years,
between the death of one incumbent and the instal-
ition of another, and it is very rarely that the right
is not taken full advantage of, but in the present
istance, the see remained vacant only six months.
It must not be supposed that the tenants of the late
bishop bore him any personal ill-will ; indeed, as
he lived in Croatia, and they in the Banat, they
could know very little of him ; but absenteeism be-
gets no good- will anywhere, and the hope of being
under the officers of the Kammer or Exchequer for
three years, instead of the Bishop's steward, would
more than have consoled them for the death of
a dozen such prelates. I believe I must let the
reader a little into the mysteries of this Exchequer
Stewardship, this Kammer al Administration, before
he can fully comprehend the peasant's joy at his
Bishop's death, or his disappointment at his suc-
cessor's speedy appointment.
The King of Hungary is heir, in default of male
descendants, of all fiefs male, under which title most
of the land in Hungary is held, with the condition,
however, that he shall, when he sees fit, confer it
on others, as the reward of public services. All
newly-conquered land of course belongs, in like man-
ner, to the crown, so that at one time, the whole of
the Banat, and the greater part of it still, as well
VOL. n. G
82 THE RAMMER.
as many estates* in other parts of the country, are
enjoyed by the king under this title. The steward-
ship of such vast possessions necessarily employs a
great number of persons, all of whom, particularly
the inferiors, are, according to the rule of the Aus-
trian Government, very badly paid. As might na-
turally be expected under such a system, none but
the very highest officers are insensible to the charms
of a bribe. If an estate is to be purchased, ''the
valuer must be fee'd that he may not over-value it,
the resident-steward must be fee'd that he may not
injure him in another point, and the clerks of the
offices must also be fee'd in order to induce them
to open their books and afford the necessary informa-
tion. If the peasant of the Kammer wishes to
escape a day's labour, a fat capon, or a dozen fresh
eggs make the overseer of the Kammer forget to
call him out; if his land is bad or wet, and if a por-
tion in the neighbourhood farmed by the Kammer
be better, a few florins adroitly distributed to the
overseer, steward, valuer, clerks, and commissioners,
make them all think it for the Kammer's benefit
to exchange the good land for the bad. In many
parts where this corrupt system has been carried
out to its full extent, the peasant has no idea, when
any favour of this kind is refused him, that it has
been denied from a sense of its injustice, but
* These estates must not be confounded with the Fiscal or
Crown Estates ; a vast and inalienable property, from which a
great part of the King of Hungary's revenues are derived.
THE RAMMER.
83
believes only that the offered bribe has not been
high enough. So openly is this system pursued,
that it is a matter of constant joke among the
officers themselves. The knowledge of these prac-
tices has produced such a want of confidence on
the part of the superior members of the Kammer
in their subalterns, that they have put a stop to
everything like improvement in the lands of Go-
vernment, as affording only additional opportunities
for robbery on the part of their officers. Many
very worthy officers — for honourable men are to be
found even under such corrupting circumstances —
disgusted at this want of energy at the source, dis-
pirited by the damp thrown upon every scheme they
have proposed for improving the property, and in-
creasing the revenue, and irritated at being suspect-
ed of crimes they are incapable of, have sunk into in-
active followers of a bad system, instead of becoming
what they might have been, its efficient reformers.
I remember a steward one day pointing out to me
some beautifully rich land, overgrown with thorns,
in one of the loveliest valleys of the Banat. " You
see the riches the soil offers us here," said he ; " you
observe that the peasants sow nothing but maize,
and that the greater portion of the land is useless.
We have not even wheat for our own use. Shocked
at so great a waste, and convinced that the soil
would produce wheat, I tried the experiment on
ground before untilled, and raised as fine a crop as
I could wish. In my yearly report, of course this
G 2
84 THE RAMMER.
was mentioned, and I suggested the importance of
more extended trials : would you believe that I
received a severe reprimand for my experiment,
that the correspondence on the subject lasted two
years, and that, had not the success been so very
evident, I should have lost my place ? As it was,
I was desired for the future not to depart from
the usual routine without positive orders from my
superiors ! "
If such is the administration of estates which
have been for years in the hands of the Kammer,
it may easily be imagined how it must be with the
estates of the church when the officers of the Kam-
mer obtain a casual and only temporary possession
of them, — what glorious opportunities for specula-
tion ! how certain the officers would be to make
the best of their short harvest ! and how easily
the peasants might find their profit under such a
stewardship !
Now we are on the subject of the Kammer, we
may as well point out another of the inconve-
niences arising from a bad system of administration.
The Government, oppressed by the greatest finan-
cial difficulties, wishes to sell the whole of the Kam-
meral property to pay some of the state debts. I
ought to add, by way of parenthesis, that the do-
nation of these estates, as a reward for public ser-
vices, has become merely a legal fiction of late
years ; and though it has been frequently protested
against by the Diet, they really are sold like any
THE KAMMER. 85
other property. Whether it is that his Majesty
does not think any of his subjects' services of
such sterling value as to merit reward, or whether
he thinks the payment of a good round sum into the
Royal exchequer the most acceptable service they
can render, I leave for those to decide who better
understand royal estimations of such matters — but
so it is.* The sale, however, has progressed but
slowly ; in fact, the stewards liked their situations,
the valuers were good friends of the stewards, and
so the prices set on the estates were such, that few
were tempted to disturb them in their possession :
only those who wish to obtain the rights of nobi-
lity, as rich citizens, christened Jews, or foreign
settlers, now buy land of the exchequer.
That the consequences have been a serious injury
to Government, a great impediment to the improve-
ment of the country, and in fact an advantage to
none but lazy and unjust stewards, are facts which
every one admits, but no remedy has yet been applied.
Temesvar, the capital of the Banat, and the win-
ter residence of the rich Banatians, is one of the
prettiest towns I know anywhere. It has two hand-
some squares, and a number of very fine build-
ings. The county-hall, the palace of the liberal and
* Entre nous, reader, I believe it is better it should remain so.
The king would be responsible to no one for the disposal of this
powerful source of patronage, and it would naturally be exercised
in favour of political partisans of the court party. In the mean
time it is a pet grievance of the Diet, and serves very well to
talk about
86 TEMESVAR.
enlightened Bishop of Csanad, the residence of the
commander, and the Town-house, are all remarkable
for their size and appearance. It was little better
than a heap of huts in 1718, when Prince Eugene
besieged the Turks, who then held it, and drove
them for ever from this fair possession. At that
time, too, the country round was a great swamp,
and constantly infested with fevers of the most
fatal character. Prince Eugene laid the plan of
the present town, and commenced the fortifications
by which it is surrounded. I have no doubt the
defences are very good, for there are all manner
of angles and ditches, and forts, and bastions, and
great guns, and little guns ; so that wherever a man
goes, he has the pleasant impression that half-a-
dozen muzzles are pointing directly his way, and
to an uninitiated son of peace that would appear just
the impression a good fortification ought to convey.
It is scarcely necessary to remain half an hour in
Temesvar, to be convinced that, however success-
fully Prince Eugene may have driven the Turks
themselves from the country, neither he nor his
soldiers could eradicate the strong marks of Turkish
blood with which the good people of Temesvar are
inoculated. A black eye and delicately arched nose,
of a character perfectly eastern, cross one's path
every moment. The Greek and Jewish families
too who live here in great numbers, for the sake of
trade, add to the foreign aspect of the population.
We observed one or two beautiful heads under the
COUNTY OF KRASSO. 87
little red Greek caps, the long braids of dark hair
mixing fancifully with the bright purple tassels of
that most beautiful of head-dresses. Of the society
of Temesvar, I can say nothing from personal know-
ledge. Report, that scandal- bearing jade, rather
laughs at the costly display of wealth indulged in
by the beau monde here ; accuses it of anything but
an excess of mental cultivation ; and sneers about
luxury and the fruit of newly acquired wealth,
displayed without the taste which it requires a
polished education and the habits of good society
to confer. But- then, after all, Report is pro-
bably poor and envious ; and I have no doubt
Temesvar has just as good a tale against her mean-
ness and pride, and probably laughs just as heartily
about great names and little means, proud hearts
and empty pockets.
In that corner of the Banat, between Temesvar
and the confines of Hungary, on the south and east, —
in other words, in the beautiful county of Krasso, —
the traveller can scarcely fail to notice the different
state of the roads from those he has been previously
accustomed to. Some thirty years ago the roads in
this same county were impassable, the whole dis-
trict was little better than a den of thieves, and the
misery consequent on vice and disorder was every-
where most severely felt. Determined to remedy
this evil, Government appointed as F6 Ispan of the
county, Baron Wenkheim, a man of enlarged views
and of great energy of character. Under his direc-
BARON WENKHEIM.
tion, affairs soon assumed a different aspect. A
police was formed and maintained with almost
military strictness of discipline, justice was adminis-
tered with unbending severity, and the Baron soon
succeeded in establishing a fear and respect for
the law which it had long wanted. Security once
obtained, it became his object to render it perma-
nent. From the scattered manner in which the
villages were built, it was found exceedingly difficult
to obtain evidence of a suspected person's move-
ments ; those of the peasantry who were anxious to
screen an offender from the hands of justice, could
always plead the distance of their dwellings, as a
reason for their alleged or real ignorance of his
movements. An order was given for the regulation
of villages, by which they were brought near the
public roads, built in a regular manner, no house
being allowed to be at more than a certain distance
from another, and every man was thus brought
within the knowledge and observation of his neigh-
bours. In case of the trial of any peasant, his
immediate neighbours were, and are to this day,
summoned to give evidence of his outgoings and
incomings, of his character, means of living, and
common occupations. It is obligatory on the
neighbours to give this evidence ; and I believe,
they are punishable if they do not take due
notice of such facts. To the legal antiquary it
will be scarcely necessary to mention the similarity
of this system to the institution of frank pledges,
BARON WENKHEIM. 80
or ti things, as described by Hal lam to have existed
among the Anglo-Saxons, in very remote times.*
The state of the roads was another object of his
attention. Extensive lines of road were laid down,
by which in the course of a few years, not only all
the large places, but every two villages also would
be united by a good road. Wenkheim's doctrine
was, that it was better to do such things at once —
for independently of the present benefit, it was
as yet thought no hardship by the peasants that
they should be made to work at them, and there-
fore was none; but the time was fast approaching
when the peasant would have other ideas on such
matters, and what was now easy might then be
impossible. These lines of road are not yet com-
pleted ; for after Wenkheim's death, which took
place before his plans were executed, various causes
retarded the finishing of them : but they are still in
progress, and Krasso is already one of the most
quiet and peaceable parts of the kingdom, and
certainly the best-furnished with roads of any
county in Hungary.
While on a visit to Baron B in the neigh-
bourhood of Lugos, we had an opportunity of joining
in an amusement common enough in the wooded
* I am not sure whether the same rule extends to other parts
of Hungary, but I am inclined to believe it does ; and I think
that it offers a more probable explanation of the existence of
those large villages, and the absence of single houses, than that
given by Marmont, who has been pleased to theorise on this
subject after his own particular fashion.
90 A WOLF-HUNT.
parts of the Banat. Among the baron's neighbours
who had been invited to meet us at dinner, there
was an eager sportsman, who of course led the
conversation to his favourite theme. I had too
much fellow-feeling not to be a willing listener, and
glorious tales did he recount to us of wolves, and
boars, and bears which had fallen before his rifle.
Though we were positively to have started the next
morning, it somehow or other happened that before
the evening was over, we were busy in giving
orders to have our guns cleaned, arranging the plan
of operations, and listening to our host's prepa-
ratory orders for a wolf-hunt. On inquiry in the
village, he was assured that wolves had been seen
and tracked in the vineyards only two days before,
and every one was quite certain there were several
in the neighbourhood.
Now, although in the Banat the peasant is not
obliged to attend his lord for three days' hunting,
as in other parts of Hungary, yet it is rarely he
refuses the request to aid in the sport, especially
when wolves are about, or when, as in the present
case, he likes his master and receives refreshments
for his trouble. Accordingly, when we got up next
morning we found no less than a hundred peasants
collected about the house, waiting for us. As soon
as our party had assembled, which consisted of some
of the neighbouring gentry and of the officers quar-
tered at Lugos, and after a hearty breakfast, which
would have done honour to Scotland, had been
A WOLF-HUNT. 91
concluded with a glass of Banat whisky, sliwowitz,
out we sallied, three waggons and four being in
attendance to conduct us to the place of meeting.
Here the peasants were already collected, and an
old sportsman was arranging and pointing out their
stations as we came up. Twenty of them were
furnished with guns, some of them in a melancholy
state of infirmity; but, as they were principally
intended to frighten the game, it was of little
consequence : the rest were to act merely as
drivers.
We made our first cast in a low wood, half gorse,
half timber, which occupied the two sides of a little
valley, and which was traversed by the dry beds of
several old water-courses. Towards one part of
these courses the drivers were to make so as to
force the game to break in that direction ; and here,
at twenty or thirty yards' distance from each other,
we were stationed. As the stranger, I was placed
in the position most likely to have the first shot ;
and most anxiously did I listen to the yells and
shouts of the treibers, as they called to each other to
enable them to keep their lines, and to the drop-
ping shots of the jagers, intended to rouse the
game if any there should be. It is not the plea-
santest thing in the world for an uncertain shot to
have half-a-dozen sportsmen below him on such an
occasion as this, for the special purpose of " wiping
his eye," should he miss the first shot he ever made
at a wolf, especially if he finds himself starting at
92 A WOLF-HUNT.
the crack of every dry bough and carrying his piece
to his shoulder at every black-bird that flutters from
her perch ; for though their politeness might spare
the stranger the joke aloud, a sportsman's instinct
tells him they would not enjoy it the less in silence.
In thinking over such a scene afterwards, it might
occur to one that there was some little danger
among so many guns in a thick wood, especially
when balls or slugs were chiefly used ; but, at the
time, I defy a man who likes sport to plague himself
with such fancies. By degrees the shouts became
nearer, but there was nothing I could take for a
view-halloo, — the which, though I have no idea
what sort of thing an Hungarian peasant would
make of it, I would be bound to recognize by in-
stinct,—and at last one treiber and then another
came up, and the Treib was declared out.
Several times did we make our cast in different
woods, but still with the same ill success, till evening
came on when we returned to bear the railings of
the ladies — always unmerciful on luckless sportsmen.
So ended our Treib-jagd. Our kind host, however,
took it quite to heart ; " Such ingratitude," he said,
" of the worthless beasts! not a year passes that they
do not worry me a colt or two ; and now, on the
only occasion when I have wished to see their
grinning faces, not one would make his appearance."
Let me add, that when I met him next year he was
still inconsolable at the disappointment, though he
had taken pretty good revenge a month after our
A WOLF-HUNT. 93
visit, when they had killed seven in one day out of
the very wood we first beat.
A good dinner — a necessary conclusion to hunt-
ing, be the country what it may — soon drove all the
thoughts of disappointment out of our heads, and
we were only sorry we could not stay to accept the
invitation to a boar-hunt, which our sporting friend
of the preceding evening would fain have pressed
on us.
OVID'S TOWER.
CHAPTER IV.
THE VALLEY OF HATSZEG.
Valley of the Temes — Wallack Beauty.— Ovid's Tower.— Iron
Works at Ruskberg. — Effects of regular Work and regular Pay.
— Reformers in Hungary. — Iron Bridge. — Iron-gate Pass,
between Hungary and Transylvania. — Hospitality. — Varhely
the Ulpia Trajana of the Romans. — The Dacians under their
native kings— conquered by Trajan. — Wallack Language like
the Italian. — Wallacks of Dacian, not Roman, Origin. —
Roman Remains at Varhely. — Amphitheatre. — Mosaics.
INSTEAD of entering Transylvania by any of the
usual routes, we proceeded from Mehadia along the
banks of the Temes, through some most lovely
scenery, and along as good a road as any in England,
VALLEY OF THE TEMES.
95
— for we were still in the military frontiers, — to
Karansebes, and then turning to the east we took
the direction of the Iron-gate pass. The valley of
the Temes is deficient in grandeur, but it is wild
and wooded. Twice narrowing itself into a rocky
pass where the road has been won from the moun-
tain side, and again widening into meadows and
cornfields, it presents every change of colour, and
every variety of scene which can add charms to a
landscape. The peasants too in their antique cos-
tumes were still new to us, and the women were, or
at least we thought them, remarkably beautiful. As
we walked along the streets of Karansebes during
the market-day, the number of beauties we met was
extraordinary. It is curious how various are the
opinions different travellers form of the beauty of a
people. One passes along a road and meets nothing
but pretty faces, — as certainly was the case with
us here ; another follows and sees not a beauty
in the whole country. This struck me the more
forcibly, as I again (afterwards) passed over this
very road, and should certainly have formed but an
ill opinion of the people's comeliness from my
second visit.
To the lovers of classical reminiscences, Ovid's
tower is a name of irresistible attraction. About
two miles from Karansebes, on a hill at the foot
of the mountain Mika, is a small square castle,
Non domus apta satis,
which has obtained the popular title of Ovid's
96 OVID'S TOWER.
Tower, and whence are said to have issued those
sweet lamentations at his cruel destiny which still
keep a world in admiration. I know the learned
say his place of banishment was on the other side
of the Danube at Tomi, on the borders of the
Black Sea. But I still am inclined to hope that
some part of Ovid's sufferings might find a location
here; — where indeed could the poor poet have
cried with greater truth
Lassus in extremis jaceo populisque, locisque :
Heu quam vicina est ultima terra mihi !
It is pleasant to believe that the Roman soldiers,
when the conquests of Trajan, some half century
later, had thrown Dacia into their hands, paused
in their career of victory — for it was along this
valley they marched — to visit the prison of their
popular poet, and hand down the tradition of his
residence there to the present Wallacks.
A short distance from Karansebes, we turned off
the high-road to visit the iron-works at Ruskberg.
The Messieurs Hoffmann, Germans of great enter-
prise, having purchased the estate of Ruskberg from
the Government, have established in this wild
valley a colony of now no less than two thousand
five hundred persons, who are actively engaged in
their works. Though the iron-foundry is the prin-
cipal object of their industry, the Messieurs Hoff-
mon have by no means confined themselves to it.
Having found ores of silver, lead, and copper, as well
RUSKBERG. 97
as iron in their valley, they work them all. With
that good fortune too, which so often attends the
genius of enterprise, they discovered that a part
of the rock overhanging the little stream which
bends its course through the valley, was just of the
height required for casting shot. Now it hap-
pened that in all Hungary, Transylvania, and Wal-
lachia, there was no shot-tower, though sporting is
a very common amusement, so the Hoffmans were
at once able to establish a trade which consumed
not only all their own lead, but obliged them to pur-
chase more. Their shot-tower is simply a fine crag
one hundred and forty-four feet high. At the top
is a small wooden house, in which the lead is melted
and allowed to pass through the cullender-shaped
mould, whence the shot falls directly into a little
basin formed in the brook below.
The iron-works are higher up the valley, and
there we found quite a second colony composed
of all nations, speaking all languages ; Magyars
and Wallacks, Germans and Gipsies, Sclaves and
Frenchmen, were working together apparently in
the greatest harmony. I was much pleased with
the account these gentlemen gave us of the conduct
and character of the different races employed by
them ; for it bore me out in an old theory of mine,
that there is more good than evil in the worst of men,
the first being an essential part of their nature, the
last mostly the fruit of circumstances. At Rusk-
berg, though the various nations presented marked
VOL. II. H
98 RUSKBERG.
national distinctions, yet the same treatment and
the same position have produced nearly the same
effects in all. By good management, regular pay-
ment, and constant employment, the lazy Wallack
had become an industrious artisan, and the wander-
ing, roguish, degraded gipsy, a clever steady work-
man. Yet many times have I heard injudicious
philanthropists in Hungary declare how impossible
it was to make the Wallacks labour, and that
merely because they had failed in some pet scheme
for changing in a day their habits and modes of
life, the work of centuries ! How many kind-hearted
people have given clothes to the naked gipsy, and
offered him the shelter of a roof, and have branded
him afterwards as incapable of civilization, and as
insensible to the commonest feelings of gratitude ;
because he sold the one to supply himself with
what he needed more, or forsook the other to
seek some occupation less foreign to his tastes and
habits !
The Reformer's is always an arduous task ; but
when his efforts are directed to the improvement of
the manners and the character of men, it is a labour
to which very few are equal. To be able to enter
into the thoughts and feelings of others — to appre-
ciate circumstances, in which one has never been
placed — to judge of the wants and necessities to
which they give rise — to seize the points by
which men may be influenced — to eradicate the
bad and leave the good parts of their character
REFORMS IN HUNGARY. 99
untouched — to devote heart and soul, without a
thought of self-interest to such a work, and then
to bear cheerfully the suspicion, the calumny, the
opposition of those for whom one has laboured, —
these are some of the qualities required by him
who undertakes to reform mankind. As for those
philanthropic absolutists, who insist on making men
happy either in this world or the next, whether
they will or not, I hold them to be the greatest
enemies of their species. If, instead of enforcing on
man a happiness which does not suit him, they
would but content themselves with removing all
those obstacles which bad laws and the false insti-
tutions of society impose between poverty and im-
provement ;— if they would but busy themselves in
placing man in a position to help himself, and take
care to show him an example in their own persons
of those virtues they are most anxious he should
practise ; I am convinced that the spirit of moral
advancement, and the desire of bettering his con-
dition, are principles so strongly implanted in human
nature, that they must prevail. Nay, so certain do
I feel of this improvability in the human race, that
I have often thought the great men of the earth
must needs have employed all their wit and cun-
ning to invent wicked laws to depress the little
men, or the little would long ere this have been
much greater than they are, — though it is just pos-
sible that the great might have grown somewhat
less by the process.
100 IRON BRIDGE.
But it is time to return to the iron-works. The
Messieurs Hoffman showed us the parts of an iron
bridge they were constructing for Mehadia, on
a plan similar to one already erected at Lugos.
This bridge was said to have been invented by one
of their workmen, a German, who constructed as
a model a small bridge over the brook of Ruskberg.
The model bridge, which has been erected some
years, and is in constant use, is about eighteen feet
long by four wide, and weighs only 1 cent. The
principle — a new one,* so far as I am aware — de-
pends on the tension of the arch being maintained
by the binding-rods, which unite the two ends, and
which is consequently increased the greater the
weight imposed. It will be better understood by
supposing two strung bows laid on piers to repre-
sent the bridge, the road being formed only by
planks resting on the strings. This bridge has the
advantages of being the lightest and cheapest, of
affording the greatest quantity of space below, and
of requiring, at the same time, the least height in
the piers supporting it. Three or four of these
bridges are now erected in different parts of Hun-
gary, varying in some minute details only, and have
been found to answer extremely well.
Another novelty, at least to me, which their
works presented was this. Requiring a great deal
* Having shown a drawing of this bridge to Mr. Tierney
Clark, he assures me that a similar one exists in Yorkshire, and
that it has been built many years.
RUSKBERG. 101
of wood for building, they fell their own timber, saw
it in their own mills, and, to avoid the inconvenience
arising from its greenness, they dry it before using it.
This is done by placing the planks in a small closed
building, into which a stream of hot steam is di-
rected, which, entering the wood, drives out its
natural juices — I suppose on the principle of endos-
mose and exosmose — penetrating the vessels in
which they are contained, and supplying their place.
The moisture from the steam itself is easily got rid
of by a little exposure to the sun. Supposing the
shrinking of new wood to occur from the gradual
drying out of these juices — and it is highly pro-
bable that in the close texture of wood, viscous
fluids, confined in their proper vessels, would re-
quire much time to exude — the theory seems plau-
sible; and, what is still more, Messieurs Hoffman
assured me that experience had proved it to be cor-
rect, for wood so treated did not shrink afterwards,
nor was it in any respect inferior to old wood.
It is unnecessary to speak of all the works we
saw carried on here — the smelting-works, crushing-
mills, washing-floors, iron-hammers, smelting-fur-
nace, casting-floors, moulding-rooms, shot-sorting,
engine-making, sa wing-mills, indeed, almost all the
ruder processes to which the working of metals
leads. We were pressed to stay another day, and to
visit the mines which were still higher up the valley,
and which are said to be particularly interesting to
the geologist, from some peculiarities in the strata
102 IRON-GATE PASS.
which they present, as well as a quarry of fine
white marble, which has been used by the statuary;
but we were already in October, and the traveller
can scarcely count on fine weather in Hungary after
the commencement of November, so that we were
forced reluctantly to decline.
The border tract between Hungary and Tran-
sylvania could not boast the smoothest of roads ; but
we arrived safely at the summit of the low moun-
tain pass, where a Wallack cross, curiously carved
with the bastard Greek letters which the Wallacks
use, the top covered in by a neat shingle-roof, some-
thing like Robinson Crusoe's umbrella, marked the
boundary. On the Hungarian side we had the
cold bare mountains, ripening in the distance into
wooded hills, beyond which we could just perceive
the rich plain of the Banat ; while, towards Transyl-
vania, a deep mountain gorge, whose yellow-tinted
hanging woods buried its depth in mystery, carried
the eye over a succession of lovely hills and valleys,
to which the deep warm shadows of an autumnal
sunset lent a charm of peculiar grace and beauty.
At the narrowest part of this pass the Romans
are said to have had literally an iron gate, which
gave its name to the place. At present not a re-
main of any kind exists ; but it is curious that three
of the most difficult passages which Trajan en-
countered in his expedition against Dacia in the
Balkan, on the Danube below Orsova, and at the
entrance of Transylvania — should all retain the
VARHELY. 103
name of Iron-Gate Pass, in the language of the
common people, to the present day. This pass has
been alternately contested by Dacian, Roman, Turk,
and Christian ; and many are the scenes of savage
glory it has witnessed; many the dying groans it
has received. Happily, these times are gone by;
and the Borderer, who now keeps his solitary guard
on the contested point, finds no more formidable
enemy than the poor salt-smuggler ; and the pass
itself is only a terror to the horses, who can hardly
drag their burthen through its deep and clayey
roads. We were fortunate to have passed it before
night, which overtook us rather suddenly as we
approached the village of Varhely.
Here we were willing to stay, could quarters be
obtained ; but hearing that nothing like an inn
was to be found, we gave orders to proceed on to
Hatszeg, though the driver declared his horses were
tired, and the road worse than ever. During the
conversation which ensued, an old Wallack joined
the party, and offered his opinion on the folly of my
proposition very unreservedly, wondering why we
could not be content to stop at the house of the
Dumnie (Dominus) — the squire of the village.
Now, though I knew that Transylvania was the
very home of hospitality, I did not like to demand
it quite so unceremoniously; but the peasant saved
me the necessity, for, trotting off, he returned in a
few seconds with an invitation from his master, for
us to make use of his house during our stay.
104 VARHELY.
The Wallack's Dumnie was an Hungarian noble of
the poorer class, possessing one-third of the village
of Varhely, and living in the style of one of our
smallest farmers. The family consisted of the
young master, his mother and two sisters, who,
though they spoke only Hungarian and Wallack,
came out to receive us, and assured us that we were
heartily welcome. The house was a pretty building
of one story, raised four feet above the ground,
and was entered by a handsome portico. It con-
sisted of the kitchen, which was half filled with
the high hearth, two rooms on each side, and below
store-rooms and cow-houses ; the whole being en-
closed by a garden on one side, and by the large
farm-yard and buildings on tlie other. We were
shown into the best rooms, usually occupied by the
family as sleeping-rooms ; and, in a very short time,
the beds were covered with the whitest linen, while
the table offered a hearty supper to console us for
the cold dinner we had taken during the morning,
and to satisfy the keen appetite the mountain air
had blessed us with.
Varhely, or Gradistie, in the language of the
Wallacks, is a place of so much interest, that we
thought ourselves singularly fortunate in obtaining
our present shelter. Though now a miserable Wal-
lack village, Varhely occupies the site of Sarmise-
gethusa, the former capital of the Dacians, the
residence of Decebalus their king ; and on the ruins
of which, Ulpia Trajana was founded, — the imperial
THE DACIANS. 105
city which Trajan destined as the seat of govern-
ment, for his conquests beyond the Danube !
The name of Dacia scarcely makes its appearance
in history, till the time of Alexander, when the
Dacians, under their King Sarmis, refusing to sub-
mit to the conqueror's arms, their kingdom was
ravaged, and peace with difficulty obtained. This
Sarmis is said to have built the town, which was
named from him, and this is rendered almost cer-
tain by a gold coin found near Thorda, arid which
bears his effigy, with the words 2APMI2 BAZIA
on one side, and on the reverse, the fortified gate of
a town. On the division of Alexander's conquests
among his generals, Thrace, together with the
countries on either side the Danube, fell to the
share of Lysimachus. But Dacia had been over-
run, not subdued ; and the new king found his
subjects so little inclined to accept his rule, that he
was obliged to march against them at the head of a
large force. Dromichretes, the successor of Sarmis,
was prepared for the attack, and succeeded, not
only in resisting the Grecian army, but in capturing
its chief, and appropriating the rich plunder of his
camp.
It is probable that at this time, either from the
plunder of the camp, or from the ransom of his pri-
soners, the Dacian King obtained an immense trea-
sure, for on two separate occasions, — if I am rightly
informed, once in 1545, and again about twenty
years since, — many thousand gold coins have been
106 THE DACIANS.
discovered in this neighbourhood, some of them
bearing the name of Lysimachus, and others the
word KO2HN from the name of the town Cossea
in Thrace, where they were struck. I am in pos-
session of some of these coins; and though many were
melted down by the Jews, in Wallachia, to whom
they were conveyed across the frontier in loaves of
bread, they are still very common, and are fre-
quently used by the Transylvanians for signet rings,
and other ornaments.
From this time, for nearly two hundred and fifty
years, the history of Dacia is almost a blank, but
in the commencement of Augustus's reign we find
these barbarians, led on by their King Cotyso, — the
same probably whom Ovid addresses,
Regia progenies, cui nobilitatis origo,
Nomen in Eumolpi pervenit usque, Coty,
Fama loquax vestras si jam pervenit ad aures,
Me tibi finitimi parte jacere soli ! —
rushing down into Italy, and committing such ra-
vages as to fix the attention of Rome on them
as dangerous enemies. Engaged for some years
in frequent wars, with various fortune, they obtained
at last so decided an advantage over the weakness
of Domitian as to reduce that Emperor to accept
a peace, accompanied by the most disgraceful
conditions, and among others the payment of a
yearly tribute to Dacia. Decebalus, however, the
then King of the Dacians, had, in the eyes of
Rome, merited his destruction by his success, and
TRAJAN'S CONQUEST. 107
no sooner did Trajan assume the Imperial purple
than he determined to restore to its brightness the
tarnished honour of the empire, and accordingly
prepared an expedition against Dacia which he
headed himself.
Trajan seems to have passed through Pannonia
(Hungary), to have crossed the Theiss, and followed
the course of the Maros into Transylvania. His
first great battle was on the Crossfield, near Thor-
da. After an obstinate contest, the Dacians were
completely routed, and Decebalus obliged to take
refuge in Sarmisegethusa. The Crpssfield is still
called by the Wallack peasants the " Prat de Tra-
jan" (Pratum Trajani), a curious instance of the
tenacity of a people's recollections. Reduced to
the last extremity, Decebalus was obliged to ac-
cept humiliating conditions, which he took the first
opportunity of breaking. Trajan, however, had de-
termined that Dacia should form a Roman pro-
vince, and he at once set out again to complete
his conquest.
Better acquainted with the geography of the
country, Trajan chose a nearer route, and one by
which he might at once reach his enemy's capital.
It was on this occasion that he crossed the Danube,
below the Iron Gate, where his famous bridge was
afterwards built, and sending one part of his army
along the Aluta, he himself seems to have followed
the valley which now leads from Orsova, by Meha-
dia and Karansebes, over the Iron-gate Pass, direct
108 ROMANS IN DACIA.
to Sarmisegethusa. On the column of Trajan, at
Rome, the chief events of these two campaigns are
most minutely depicted, and thus completely do
away with many fables which historians have ap-
pended to the story. It appears that the Dacians,
unable any longer to defend their capital, set fire to
it, and fled to the mountains. Decebalus, finding it
impossible to escape his pursuers, stabbed himself
and many of his followers destroyed themselves by
poison to avoid subjection to the Romans. It is
much to be desired that the history of this war
should be written by one acquainted with the topo-
graphy and antiquities of Transylvania, as well as
with the materials which Rome and her writers afford.
Trajan, when he had completed the subjugation
of the country, turned his attention to the security
of the new province. The present Transylvania
became Dacia Mediterranea ; Wallachia and Mol-
davia, Dacia Transalpina; and the Banat, Dacia
Ripensis. The bridge over the Danube, the road
cut in the rock along its banks, the formation of
colonies at Varhely, Karlsburg, Thorda, and several
other places, and the connecting them by roads,
remains of which still exist, were the means he
employed to perpetuate the power of Rome, in the
newly-acquired territory.*
* It has been said that Trajan, through the treachery of a Da-
cian, discovered the hidden treasures of Decebalus, which he had
concealed in the bed of a brook, having turned its course to enable
him to place them there. This story derives some confirmation
from the column, on which, after the taking of the city, are seen
WALLACK LANGUAGE. 109
Notwithstanding the resolution of Hadrian to
forsake the conquests of his predecessor, and the
steps he actually took for that purpose, the Romans
jem to have remained masters of Dacia, till the
;ime of Aurelian, when they finally retired across ^
ihe Danube, and gave up Dacia to the Goths. \(JH
Although the duration of the Roman empire in
lis country was much shorter than in many others n^-
>f Europe — about one hundred and seventy years *v
only, — yet in none did they leave such striking '
remains of their domination, especially in the Ian- /5 &
guage, as here. The Wallack of the present day fv
Us himself "Rwmunyi? and retains a traditional 77h
[pride of aiic^s^rj,_inspiteofhis present degrada- Wt
The language now spoken by all the people
of this nation is soft, abounding in vowels, and de-
riving most of its words from the Latin. The pro-
nunciation resembles much the Italian, and it is
extraordinary that the inflexions and terminations
of the words have a much greater similarity to the
modern language of Italy than to their Latin origi-
nal. This would tend to prove, as no connection
has existed between the countries since that time,
either that the vulgar language of Rome was more lj\
simple than we commonly imagine, or that, in both y
cases, the changes have been the natural ones to
which a language submits, on its being mixed with
several horses bearing to Trajan panniers filled with treasures,
principally consisting of rich cups and vessels. The coins found
in 1545, were actually discovered in the bed of this very brook.
110 WALLACK LANGUAGE.
others and simplified by the use of an uneducated
or foreign people. Nothing is so complex in the
quantity of its inflexions as a pure language, nothing
so simple as a compound and mixed one. (^Someyof
the Wallack words are, I believe, Sclavish, which
may be accounted for by supposing the Sclavish
to have been the original language of the Dacians
(and from certain Sclavish names of rivers and
mountains here, as well as in Wallachia, I am
inclined to believe this the case), or it may be
owing to the later mixture of the races, but the
preponderance of Latin is so great as to strike a
foreigner immediately, and to render the acquisition
of the language very easy. On one occasion, being
without a servant who spoke the language, I learned
enough, for a traveller's needs, in a day or two,
and when at a loss, I always resorted to Italian,
which was often understood, and with a slight
change of sound became Wallack.*
While I am dabbling in the philosophy of lan-
guage, let me not forget a trait which, on my
return from Turkey, struck me very forcibly. From
the Turk the Wallack has borrowed but few words ;
but one familiar sound has become so fixed in his
vocabulary, that he will never lose it ; and it marks,
as well as a hundred pages, the relation in which
the Turk and Wallack stood to each other. This
little word is, " haide ! " In Constantinople it is
* I may instance, bun cai, for buoni cavalli ; and apa, for
&c.
WALLACKS OF DACIAN ORIGIN. Ill
the Frenchman's " va-t~en" to the beggar-boy, the
Austrian's "marchir" to his dog, our "come up''
to a horse, or the " begone" of an angry master to
his servant — yet none of these languages have any
one word of command applied alike to man or
beast; but such is the "haide" of the Turk, and
such the word he hath bequeathed to the Wallack
language, — a lasting monument of his imperious
sway. However the Wallack poet may in after-
ages gloss over the fact of his people's slavery, his
own tongue will belie him as often as the familiar
" haide" escapes from his lips.
It is difficult to say how far the Wallack of the
present day has a title to his claim of Roman de-
scent. It was natural enough that the half-civilized
\Dacians should regard with contempt and hatred
the savage hordes which succeeded the Romans, and
although conquered, that they should proudly cherish
the name of /Rumunyi. ) The greater number of the
[Roman colonists retired across the Danube, but it is
possible that some may have remained behind, and
from such the Wallacks of Hatszeg claim their
descent. The rest, I believe, are content with the
honour of that mixture of Roman and Dacian blood
which one may naturally suppose to have taken
place between the conquerors and the conquered.
That this admixture of races, however, has had
so great an influence as travellers have been led
to think, from observing the difference of features
between the Wallack and his neighbours, the
112
WALLACKS OF DACIAN ORIGIN.
Magyars and Saxons, I am much inclined to doubt,
for the features of the Wallacks are more like
those of the Dacian of Trajan's column, than those
either of the Romans or of the modern Italians.
The more I think of the matter, the more I am
convinced that the majority of the Wallacks are
true Dacians; and as the best proof, I subjoin two
Wallack heads, sketched without any reference to
the question, which if the reader be sufficiently
curious in the matter to compare them with the
figures of Dacians and Romans engraved from
Trajan's column, he will find little difficulty, I think,
in saying to which people they belong.
Preceded by our host, we commenced a survey
of Ulpia Trajana. Just beyond the village, we
found a large space of several acres covered with
stones of all sizes, which had once been used in
ROMAN REMAINS. 113
building; and in some places we discovered the
arched roofs of vaulted chambers, which had been in
several places broken into, but they seemed only to
be the lower parts of the buildings, and possessed
little interest. This space is somewhat higher than
the rest of the country, and has been surrounded
by a ditch and mound, which we found extended a
quarter of a mile into the village. It is called
by the people the Csetatie, fortified place or castle ;
but to what age it belongs, or what it may have
been, I know not. A little further on, in the same
direction, we came upon the remains of an am-
phitheatre. The outer walls are entirely covered
with earth, forming a grassy bank of about twelve
feet high, and surround an oval space of about
seventy-five yards long, by forty-five in its greatest
width. The arena is now under plough, and pro-
duces a fine crop of Indian corn. Scarcely a stone
is left, and yet the form declares, as strongly as
evidence can do, its origin and destination. Our
host, who owns this part of the village, seemed
proud in telling us the good speculation he had
made, in selling the large hewn stones which once
covered the sides and surface of the place, to his
neighbours, who were building houses. As well as
we could make out, they were laid in the form
of steps,* and from his praises of their size, they
* I am inclined to think that the name of Gradistie may have
been given to the place by the Wallacks in consequence of these
step,-(Gradu,) ^^^^ &&<& OF
VOL. II. I
114 ROMAN REMAINS.
must have been considerable. The shafts of two
pillars and a stone seat, with some Roman letters,
which now ornament our host's yard, were brought,
he said, from this place. From hence, we could
trace elevations and inequalities in the ground,
which, though now overgrown with grass, seemed
to indicate the sites of former buildings, for more
than a mile along the plain. It is said, that
remains of an aqueduct still exist ; but of these
we observed nothing, any more than of the Roman
road, though it is highly probable that a better
knowledge of the country, and the ability to con-
verse with the people, might have enabled us to
discover them. The difficulty of obtaining any
information from an uneducated farmer, through
the interpretation of an ignorant servant, is very
discouraging.
It is impossible to stand on the ruins of this
amphitheatre, with the traces of a former city
around you, the beautiful plain stretched out at
your feet, and bounded by a range of distant hills,
without calling to mind Rome, her Campagna, and
her clear blue mountains. The very forms of the
hills towards Hatszeg favoured the illusion; and,
as the last rays of the setting sun gilded their tops,
we had already made out a Tivoli, an Albano, and a
Frascati.
Towards the middle of the village, we were con-
ducted to see a Mosaic pavement, discovered here
in 1823. To obtain a sight of this object, however,
MOSAICS. 115
we had been obliged to send off the servant early
in the morning to a village ten miles distant, where
the lady, to whom this part of Varhely belongs,
lives; for she had erected a shed over the pave-
ment, to preserve it from the destructive hands of
visitors, and would only give the key to persons
with whom she thought it would be safe. As we
were totally unknown, we had some doubt as to
the success of our application ; but the servant
returned with the key, which the lady had no
hesitation, she said, in lending to Englishmen, as she
felt sure they would do no injury; and with this
very polite message she had sent also some wine for
our use, as none was to be obtained at Varhely.
How lucky, that she guessed Englishmen loved
genuine wine as well as genuine antiquities !
About three feet below the surface, and sur-
rounded by the original walls, which are eighteen
inches high, we found two Mosaic pavements,
which, from their size, separation by a wall, and
relative position, were probably the floors of two
baths. The chamber on the left, nearly twenty
feet square, was occupied by a very perfect Mosaic,
surrounded by a highly ornamented border, repre-
senting the visit of Priam to Achilles, to beg the
dead body of Hector. The names of I1PIAMO2,
AXIAAET2, and ATTOMEAQN, the sword-
bearer of Achilles, are worked in Greek letters;
while Mercury, who has conducted Priam, is suffi-
ciently indicated by his caduceus and wings. The
i2
116 MOSAICS.
kneeling figure of Priam, embracing the knees of
Achilles, is well drawn, and full of expression, and
the dress of the Trojan king is worthy of remark,
as bearing a considerable resemblance to that worn
by the Wallacks in winter. The drawing and shad-
ing of Mercury declare the artist to have been
among the best of the time ; few, if any, of those
of Rome or Pompeii are superior. The sitting-
figure of Achilles, apparently crowned with laurels,
though the head as well as the breast have suffered,
is easy and dignified.
The colours, though not bright, are tolerably
well preserved. At first, the whole was so covered
with dust, that it was with difficulty any colour
could be distinguished ; but, after carefully washing
it, and drying it, they came out more clearly.
Some few parts have received a slight incrustation
of lime, which might easily be removed with a
knife, but we dared not attempt it. The Wallack
who was entrusted to take back the key, looked
sufficiently alarmed at the washing; and his ig-
norance might easily have given an unfavourable
report to his mistress, and caused other travellers
still greater difficulties in seeing it had we attempted
to remove the lime.
The Mosaic on the right, represents the judg-
ment of Paris. The first figure is Venus, apparently
holding the coveted apple in her left hand above
her shoulder. A tight blue and white figured dress
covers her to the hips, from whence loose drapery
MOSAICS. 117
hangs down to the feet. The second figure is pro-
bably Juno, whose face, as well as that of her
neighbour, whose helmet, gorgon-headed breast-
plate, and spear, bespeak her Minerva, is over-
clouded by the scowl of disappointed vanity. The
left hand of Minerva, probably rested on her shield ;
but the whole of the lower corner is much injured
and very indistinct. These three figures are all
beautifully worked out with rich colours, and a
little cleansing from the lime would render them
quite distinct. On the other side, Paris sits in
judgment, wearing the Phrygian cap; and behind
him, stands Mercury: both these figures are con-
siderably injured, and scarcely equal to the others
in workmanship. Part of the body of Mercury is
wanting, and its place is supplied by white Mosaic,
ancient, but from the different size and colour of
the pieces evidently repaired by another hand.
We had found so much trouble — it took us the
greater part of a day — in removing the dust and
dirt with which these Mosaics were obscured, that
we got two linen covers made, and gave directions
that they should always be placed over them, except
when they were shown. As the peasants who were
constantly with us, saw the pleasure we took in
such things, they soon brought every relic of anti-
quity the village could boast ; among others, a small
female head in white marble, part of a small Doric
capital of delicate workmanship, besides several
common silver and copper coins of Roman Em-
118 MOSAICS.
perors, found in the place. We paid them for
these things, not on account of their intrinsic value,
but rather to encourage them to preserve everything
they might find. The larger objects, we deposited
with the Mosaics, where, I dare say, future tra-
vellers will find them. It was not till after we had
left Varhely, that I was aware that a second Mo-
saic had been discovered there ; but in a paper by
M. A. Ackner, in the "Transylvania," — a very
useful periodical, now defunct, dedicated to the
antiquities of this country, — I find mention of a
large Mosaic, discovered in 1832, of which only
a small part remained perfect, and which, from
some dispute among those to whom the land be-
longed, had been again covered up.
ROMAN AND DACIANS, FROM TRAJAN'S COLUMN.
DEMSUS. 119
CHAPTER V.
VALLEY OF HATSZEG.
Demsus. — The Leiter-Wagen. — Roman Temple — its Form and
probable History. — Paintings in Wallack Churches. — Wai-
lack Priests and their Wives. — Russian Influence over the
Members of the Greek Church. — Origin of the United Greek
Church. — Religious Oppression. — Education of the Greek
Priesthood.— Village of Varhely.— The Wallack Women.—
Wallacks and Scotchmen,— Wallack Vices and Wallack Vir-
tues.— The Devil's Dancers. — Our Host's Family. — House-
hold Arrangements. — The Buffalo.
THE next morning, our host offered to drive us
over to Demsus, to show us some antiquities there ;
and as even he said the road was too bad for our
carriage, we were glad to content ourselves with a
Leiter-Wagen, so called from the similarity which
its sides bear to a ladder. In this part of the
world, everything is in so very primitive a state,
that these carriages are not only deficient in springs,
but they have often not even a particle of iron
about them, so that it is impossible to conceive
by what means they hold together. They are
gifted, however, with the singular power of bend-
ing about like a snake; and, as one wheel mounts
a bank, while the other falls into a pit, the body
120 ROMAN TEMPLE
accommodates itself, by a few gentle contortions,
to these varieties of position, without in any way
deranging itself or its contents.
Trusting ourselves to this conveyance, we follow-
ed the low range of sand-stone hills which confine
the valley on one side, while, on the other, are the
marble cliffs bounding Wallachia, — as far as Pes-
teny, where we turned into a lesser valley which led
us to Demsus. On a small hill, which overlooks
the twenty or thirty cottages which constitute this
humble village, stands a stone building now used
as a Wallack church. It is small, with a curious
half-ruined steeple, its ensemble so bizarre, as to be-
speak at once considerable intervals between the
periods of the erection of its different parts, and
AT DEMSUS. 121
variety in the taste of its architects. It seems
to have been originally a Roman temple, the in-
terior of which was about eight yards square, with
a semicircular dome, a recess towards the east, and
a portico to the west. The place of the portico is
now supplied by high walls composed of stones,
evidently brought from other parts of the building,
and more recently converted to their present pur-
pose. The entrance to the body of the temple re-
mains in its original state ; it is small, low, and
quite simple. In the interior are four large square
pillars, supporting an equal number of clumsy round
arches, on which again the tower rests. These
pillars bear monumental inscriptions,* and some
figures of horses, and are evidently of Roman work-
manship; but I must confess, I never saw anything
similar in any other Roman temple, nor do I ever
remember to have seen before this kind of inscrip-
* Among the most perfect I copied the following : —
D.M.
G • OCTAVIO • NEPOTE
VIX • AN • LXX . IVLIA
VALENTA HERES CON
IVGI PENTISSIMO
FACENDVM PROCV
RAVIT • H-S-E-
VALERIA CARA
VIX • AN • XXIX
T • PLAV1VS APER
SCRIBA COL
SARM • CONIVGI
RARISSIMAE
122 ROMAN TEMPLE
tion on pillars. Indeed, in form these pillars more
resemble altars, although from their position and
similarity they appear to have been originally in-
tended for the purpose to which they are still ap-
plied. It is possible, that in the centre of these
four arches the altar had formerly stood, and a
square piece of the floor, which is still without
pavement, though the rest has its ancient cover-
ing of hewn stone, indicates the want of something
which had once occupied this spot. In the semi-
circular recess behind might have stood the statue
of the god.
The exterior walls are supported by recent but-
tresses, in the construction of which the shafts of
several pillars have been employed, which, as well
as some others which lie near, had probably be-
longed to the portico. In another part I observed
a Corinthian capital reversed, and built into the
wall ; it appeared rich, and in a pure style, and may
serve to determine the order of the architecture.
For what purpose an arched passage which runs
along the south side was intended, I was quite un-
able to surmise. By means of the half-broken walls
of the semi-circular dome, we mounted to the out-
side of the tower. Here we found an opening into
a small chamber, two yards square and one high, in
the body of the tower, and from this there is a very
small opening into a circular passage, running round
the inside of the little tower between the outer wall
and the chimney-like opening, which gives light
AT DEMSUS. 123
to the interior. The tower itself is built partly of
bricks, partly of stones and pieces of marble from
other parts of the building. This tower is to me
a complete puzzle. It is evidently later than some
other parts of the building, yet it is too elegant to
be the work of mere barbarians. As for the use to
which the chamber and circular passage had been
put, I cannot even offer a suggestion. They cannot
have been intended, as some one supposes, to have
concealed the priest who spoke the oracle, for they
would not have enabled him to communicate with
the statue ; they could scarcely have served as
hiding-places for treasure; and there is no mark
of the tower having been used in Christian times
for a belfry. Besides the inscriptions I have copied,
there are fragments of several others, but none of
them afford any clue to the history of the build-
ing, nor any indication to what god it was dedi-
cated, unless indeed, the D.M. at the head of the
first, and the figure of the horse may not suggest
Mars as its patron. I am inclined to believe, that
the four pillars, the arches, and the tower, were
built after the temple itself by such of the descend-
ants of the Romans as remained after the evacua-
tion of Dacia, and when the original building had
suffered from the attacks of some of the earlier
barbarian invaders. On ascending the tower, we
observed two statues of lions much injured, and
apparently but rudely carved.
This temple is now, and has been from time im-
124 WALLACK CHURCHES.
memorial, used by the Wallacks as a church, to
which circumstance it probably owes its preserva-
tion. The semi-circular recess forms the altar,
which is adorned by the most wretched prints of
Greek virgins, St. Georges, and other grim saints,
and is separated from the rest of the building by
a carved wooden screen. The walls, as is common
in Greek churches, are covered with rude frescoes :
in the present instance, they are very practical
illustrations of the evils of immorality, and if the
husbands and wives of Demsus do not obey a cer-
tain commandment, it is not for want of knowing
how the devil will catch them at their peccadilloes,
for it is here painted to the most minute details.
I have often been much amused with these pic-
tures in the Wallack churches; for, though too
gross for description, they contain so much of that
racy, often sarcastic wit proper to Rabelais or
Chaucer, wrought out with a minuteness of dia-
bolical detail and fertility of imagination worthy a
Breughel, that it recalls to one's mind the laboured
illuminations of our old missals. Notwithstanding
its sins against pure taste, there is often much that
is good in the church's humour ; nor, despite the
reverence due to the holy character of the subject,
is it possible to repress a smile at the sly malice of
the monkish illuminator, when he decks out the
pharisee in the robes and jewels of some neighbour-
ing bishop ; or at the prurient imagination of the
cloister, when it breaks forth in warm delineation
WALLACK PRIESTS. 125
of all the charms and temptations by which sin can
lead poor man astray.
As we were looking at the church, the Wallack
priest came up and spoke to us. He was dressed in
a very white linen shirt, fashioned like that of the
common peasant, and fastened round his waist by a
leathern belt ; loose linen trowsers formed his nether
habit, and the rude sandal of the country served
as covering for his feet. Except from a somewhat
greater neatness of person, and the long black beard
which hung down to his breast, the Wallack priest
was in no way distinguished from the humblest of
his flock. With just enough education to read the
service of the church, just enough wealth to make
them sympathize with the poor, and just enough
religion to enable them to console them in their
afflictions, these men exercise a greater power over
the simple peasant than the most cunning Jesuit,
the most wealthy Episcopalian, or the most rigid
Calvinist. This is a strong point in favour of the
Wallack priest ; but I suspect he owes it more to
his position than his character ; the sympathy of
equality begets affection, for though the rich may
pity the poor, none but the poor can sympathise
with them, because none other can know their
wants and feelings.
I have already said, that the Wallacks belong
to the Greek church ; and in accordance with its
rules, the lower order of the clergy, or the parish-
priests, are allowed to marry, though the monks
126 WALLACK PRIESTS.
and the higher dignitaries are condemned to celi-
bacy. One effect which results from the strict ad-
herence to the letter of the Gospel in this matter,
is to make the priest's wife the happiest woman in
the parish ; for as he can be but " the husband of
one wife," he takes the greatest possible care not to
lose her, and in consequence pays a heavy tax in
the indulgence of whims and humours, an opposi-
tion to which might endanger his partner's safety
and condemn him to a state of single misery. The
education of a Wallack priest is
and I have known cases in which the common pea-
wntfeMibeenjOTiMned_mOTelj on paying the stipu- ^
Jatedjmm_Jto^ If we may believe the £j
Hungarian nobles, the Wallack priest is charac-
terized by cunning malice, which he employs to
maintain his power over the peasant, to enrich
himself, and to foment discord between landlord
and tenant. The fasts and feasts of the Greek
church, which extend to nearly one-third of the
year, and during which the peasant is strictly for-
bidden to labour for his worldly profit, the priest
adroitly avails himself of, by assuring him that he
may labour in God's service ; — which, being liberally
interpreted, means his priest's, — and so the lazy and
superstitious Wallack, who will scarcely move a
limb for his own support, willingly wastes the sweat
of his brow in tilling the Popas glebe on feast days,
and thus earns his soul's salvation.
The prelates of the Greek church, and the priests
RUSSIAN INFLUENCE. 127
officiating in large towns, receive a better educa-
tion than those of the villages ; and, in appearance
at least, have an air of greater intelligence and
respectability. The dress of the higher class of
priests is the same as that so common in Greece
and Turkey, — a long black cloak reaching to the
feet, which, with the beard and black locks flowing
over the shoulders, are often so arranged as to show
no small portion of earthly vanity. I am not fond
f of priests generally, — they are apt to have sly fat
\ minds, — but I took a positive dislike to these fel- \ u«
I lows, when I saw the looks they^directed at the '
\ beautiful half-naked WaUack girls, who always
stoop down to kiss the Popa's hand whenever they/
I pass him.
As political agents and spies of the Russian ^
court, the Wallack priests are said to be made Q r 0^
much use of, and I am fully inclined to believe 0 ^ (
it ; for they regard the Archbishop of Moscow as o VM
their mjinate, and the Emperor of Russia as the ^
head of their church .j The ritual of the Greek /o
church in Hungary, contains a prayer for the Em-
peror and King, — such is the title of the sovereign
of Austria, and Hungary, — the last part only of
which the Wallacks however apply to their own
monarch, the first being reserved for the Emperor
of Russia. This account I have heard, not only of
the Wallacks, but also of the Croatians and Scla-
vonians, among whom the Greek faith is equally
predominant, and where the influence of Russia is
128 UNITED GREEK CHURCH.
still farther strengthened by analogy of language.
A few years ago, when Austria was supposed to be
a little opposed to the aggressive strides of Russia,
a Wallack almanack, printed at Bucharest, and ex-
tensively circulated in Transylvania, openly called
upon the Wallack s of that country to wrest the
power from the Hungarian usurpers, and boldly
assert their own right to the land of their fathers.
It is not, therefore, without reason that Austria has
feared this foreign influence in the heart of her
dominions, nor without reason that she has en-
deavoured to counteract it. Unfortunately, how-
ever, instead of acting in a frank and liberal spirit
equalizing all religions, removing causes of discon-
tent, and undermining the influence of ignorance by
the diffusion of knowledge, the spirit of Jesuitical
propagandism has been let loose on the country,
and that feeling of bitter hatred has in consequence
been engendered, which anything like persecution
is always sure to beget.
The plan of Government was to form a Catholic
Greek, or united Greek church, as it is called, — that
is, a church in almost all doctrinal and essential
points like the original Greek, but acknowledging
the Roman Pontiff as its head. The marriage of
priests and the use of the vernacular tongue in the
services of the church were yielded by the politic
conclave of the Vatican. The temporal powers were
not behindhand in concessions. The members of
the Greek church, in Transylvania, had hitherto
GREEK CHURCHES. 129
been excluded from a share in the Government;
the Conformists were offered a full participation,
not only in the rights but in the favours also,
which are showered on the Catholics. By dint
of such means, and others somewhat less justifi-
able, the scheme succeeded to a certain extent,
the priest received solid reasons for his compliance
with the new doctrines, and sometimes brought
over his flock to obedience. In other cases,
especially in the valley of Hatszeg, the people
refused to change their religion in spite of the
priest's apostasy, and declined his offices, while the
Government, on the other hand, refused to allow
any other to officiate, so that instances have been
mentioned to me of villages in which, for thirty
years, no Christian ceremony, or sacrament, had
been performed. Men had been born, married*
and had died unchristened, unblessed, unshrived.
It is only those who know the sacred character
with which the superstitious Wallack clothes his
priest, and the importance he attaches to the sa-
craments of his church, who can appreciate the
strength of the feeling which induced him to resist
the one, or the cruelty which has been practised
in depriving him of the other.
Statistical works on Transylvania are very much
rarer than on Hungary, and even those which exist
are of less authority ; so that it is difficult to say,
with accuracy, what the proportion of the Wallacks
to the rest of the inhabitants is, or to state the
VOL. II. K
130 GREEK PRIESTHOOD.
relative numbers belonging to the Greek and the
united Greek churches. According to the best
authority I can command at present, the Wallacks
amount to about eight hundred and fifty thousand.
Now the " Schematisms " * of the united Greek
church of 1835, gives the number of souls pro-
fessing that creed, at five hundred and fifty-one
thousand nine hundred and eighty-nine, so that if
conscientiously correct (which I doubt) it would
give the majority very much in their favour. The
clergy as well as the people of this belief enjoy all
the privileges of Catholics, and their bishop has a
seat in the chamber. According to the work just
quoted, they have at Balasfalva a Lyceum, Gym-
nasium, and Normal School, with an abundant
array of professors in theology and philosophy.
As far as I am aware, the members of the pure
Greek church of Transylvania have no place of
education for their priesthood, although in Hungary,
where they amount to a million and a half, they
have a college at Karlowitz, which generally con-
tains about fifty theological students, besides schools,
in Neusatz, Miskolcz, and Temesvar. Notwith-
standing this, even in Hungary, and still more in
Transylvania, the common Wallack priest has for
the most part no better education than the village
* Schematismus venerabilis Cleri Grseci Ritus Catholicorum
Dioeceseos Frogarasiensis, in Transylvania, pro anno a Christo
nato 1835, ab unione cum Ecclesia Romana 138. Blasii, typis
Seminarii Dioecesani.
VARHELY.
131
school has afforded, and no more learning than is
just sufficient to get through the services of the
church.
In rambling over the scattered village of Varhely
in search of traces of former times, we had ample
opportunities of observing the state of its present
occupants. The houses of the Wallacks are as
simple as possible. They generally consist of only
one small room, in which old and young, men and
women, are indiscriminately mixed, and not unfre-
quently too the pigs and fowls come in for their
share of the accommodation. The material of the
building is usually the unhewn stems of trees lined
inside with mud, and covered with a very high roof,
composed of straw, thrown carelessly on, and fre-
quently retained in its place by branches of trees
132 WALLACK WOMEN.
hung across it. I need not point out to the^jeader
the difference between this hovel and the many-
chambered dwelling of the Magyar, the white walls
and careful thatch of which wouI3 do honour to a \
cottage orne of the Isle of Wight.; Under the over-
hanging roof are laid out in summer the beds of
the whole family, sometimes shaded by a decent
curtain ; and before the door is generally that semi-
fluid mass yclept a puddle, where the pigs and
children indulge in their siesta. As we passed one
door, a group of urchins were quarrelling with their
unclean companions for the enjoyment of a large
melon, which was fast disappearing in the struggle,
while an old woman sat listlessly watching the
strife. I shall not easily forget the figure this
woman presented. With no sort of covering save
the linen shift, which was open as low as the waist,
its whiteness strangely contrasting with the colour
of the body it should have concealed, — the blear
eye and vacant gaze of extreme age, the clotted
masses of hair bound with a narrow fillet round
the head, the fleshless legs, and the Ipngpendulous^ f.
breasts exposed without any idea of shame, pre-
sented^ a picture, the horrors of which I have/
And to such a state- is
the Wallack woman, so beautiful in the freshness
of youth, reduced before she has arrived at
what we should call a middle age. This is as
much owing to hard labour, as to bad nourish-
ment and exposure to the sun. The very early
WALLACK WOMEN. 133
marriages, too, common among the Wallacks, aid
^> I
^ this premature decline. Gjrls^ frequently marry (
sat thirteen or fourteen, and the men rarely later (
Tbanjjighteen^ I remember Baron B coming
in laughing one day at a request which a boy of
fourteen had just made to be allowed to marry,
a request to which he had of course not assented.
If a peasant is asked what he wants a wife for,
he usually answers to comb him and keep him clean.
The Wallack woman is never by any chance seen
idle. As she returns from market it is her breast
that is bulged out with the purchases of the day ;*
it is her head that bears the water from the village
well ; she dyes the wool or flax, spins the thread,
weaves the web, and makes the dresses of her
family. In harvest she joins the men in cutting the
corn, and though less strong, she is more active and
willing at the task. She uses the spindle and
distaff as the princesses of Homer did, and as
they are still used in the Campagna of Rome, and
they are scarcely ever out of her hand. You may
see her at the market suckling her child, higgling
for her eggs and butter, and twirling her spindle at
the same time, with a dexterity really astonishing,
far as ^leanjjjiessjgpes, however, she is a^J>aj_L
* Nothing can be more ludicrous than the appearance these f
women sometimes present. The front of the chemise is always /
open, and, among other purposes, serves that of a pocket. A j
woman coming from market often fills it with cabbages, meat, j
and perhaps a dozen other articles, thus forming altogether a most j
astounding protuberance.
WALLACK WOMEN.
134
Ri)NMtJ6 AROUND UKE (
^housewife ; nor does her labour produce great
effects. Among the German settlers it is a proverb,
"to be as busy as a Wallack woman, and do as
little." The dress, which I have already described,,
is with some variations everywhere the same. The
apron has sometimes little or no fringe, and at
other times is little else than fringe. In winter
.. --
they commonly wear the same thick pantaloons as
the men, cover themselves with a guba, or pelz-
rockel, and wrap up the feet in cloth sandals. One
of the figures in the sketch above, is that of a young
girl about sixteen, in full costume, and rather
tidily dressed. Her chemise was embroidered with
blue at the sleeves and neck ; her fringed aprons,
WALLACKS AND SCOTCHMEN. 135
of green and red, were bound round the waist by
a woollen belt, but the pride of her costume was
the richly embroidered sheep-skin jacket. The hair
was rather curiously arranged; it was parted
at the side and plaited, one plait hanging behind,
while the other was brought coquettishly across the
forehead. It is wonderful what variety one sees in
this particular, — every village seems to have its
fashion.
The pattern of the aprons, in which greens and
reds, blues arid blacks, are the most common colours,
reminded me very strongly of the Scotch plaid,
especially at the borders, where the colours often
cross and form the exact tartan patterns : but I
was still more struck when I observed the well-
known shepherd's plaid, the common black and
white check. I bought one piece of this kind, and
Scotchmen to whom I have shown it, at once claimed
it as their own. It is generally of very coarse
texture, being spun from the long wool of the com-
mon sheep, and is loosely woven. The dyes which
the Wallacks manage to give their cloths, are cele-
brated for their brilliancy and durability. The
mention of Scotch plaids reminds me that I have
seen some author, I think Herodotus, quoted as an
authority, that the Agathyrsse, said to have been
the ancient inhabitants of Dacia, owned the same
origin as the Picts of Scotland. Without entering
into such a knotty discussion, I merely throw out
for the consideration of Gaelic antiquaries the facts,
136 WALLACK CHARACTER.
that the Wallacks wear the tartan, that the Wal-
lacks love the bagpipe, and that the Wallacks
drink an inordinate quantity of sliwowitz, alias
mountain dew, — the which I hold to be strong
marks of similarity of taste, if not of identity of
origin.
In appearance, the common Wallack presents a
decided difference from either Magyar, Sclave, or
German. In height, I should say, that he was below
the medium, and generally rather jl|ghtlyj)uilt_^nd
thin. His features are often fine, the nose arched,
the eyes dark, the hair long, black, and wavy, but
the expression too often one of fear and cunning
to be agreeable. ] I seldom remember to have seen
among them the dull heavy look of the Sclavack,
but still more rarely the proud self-respecting
carriage of the Magyar. Seventeen hundred years'
subjection has done its work; and I can readily
believe that many of the vices attributed to the
Wallacks are possessed by them, — for they are the
vices of slaves. They are not, however, without
their redeeming qualities.
In examining the characteristics of the Wallack,
if I appear somewhat as his apologist, it is because
I did not find him so bad as he was described to
me, and because it is natural to interest oneself
rather in defending the weak than in strengthening
the strong.
The Wallack is generally considered treactu
/ revengeful, and entirely deficient in gratitude. If
COWARDICE AND ITS CAUSE. 137
once insulted, be is said to carry the recollection of
it till opportunity favours his weakness and enables
him to accomplish his revenge. This is rather his
misfortune than his fault. If stronger, like other
people, he would revenge himself without waiting.
/ Cowardice is another fault very commonly attri-
/buted to the Wallack. I remember Count S
saying, he believed every other European, except
the Neapolitan and Wallack, might be made to fight.
It is certain that nothing depresses the courage so
surely as subjection, and so long a period of it as
these people have endured cannot have been with-
out effect ; yet the Wallack peasant is a bold and
successful smuggler^ and no one is more ready to
attack a wolf or bear ; but it is hard to persuade
any, except very stupid men, to fight without a
better object than that of adding to the glory of
those they do not love. A long succession of ill
treatment has rendered them timid and suspicious.
A few years ago, a German Count settled among
the Wallacks, and with tfye kindest intentions
endeavoured to excite them to industry by giving
rewards to those who best cultivated their land.
For this purpose, all the peasants of the village
were assembled together with due solemnity, but
no sooner did their seigneur appear among them
than the whole assemblage, as though seized with
a panic, started off, and could never be got together
again. They were firmly persuaded that some trick
was to be played upon them ; as for any one doing
138 IDLENESS.
them a service for their own sakes, experience
had not taught them to think such a thing possible.
The treatment of the peasantry, however, improves
every year with the improved knowledge of their
masters. I knew an old Countess in Transyl-
vania who used to lament that "times were sadly
changed, — peasants were no longer so respectful as
they used to be ;" — she could remember walking
to church on the backs of the peasants who knelt
down in the mud to allow her to pass over them
without soiling her shoes. She could also remem-
ber, though less partial to the recollection, a rising
of the peasantry, when nothing but the kindness
with which her mother had generally treated them,
saved her from the cruel death which many of her
neighbours met with.
The Magyar peasant holds the Wallacks in the
most sovereign contempt. He calls them a " people
who let their shirts hang out" from the manner
in which they wear that article of clothing over
the lower part of their dress ; and classes them
with Jews and jGJEsies.] Even~wfien living in tluP
same village, the Magyar never intermarries with/'
That the Wallack is idle and drunken it would)
^~"
very difficult to deny.) Even in the midst of
harvest you will see him lying in the sun sleep-
ing all the more comfortably because he knows
lie ought to be working. His corn is always the
last cut, and it is very often left to shell on
BODILY WEAKNESS. 139
the ground for want of timely gathering; yet
scarcely a winter passes that he is not starving
with hunger. If he has a waggon to drive, he
is generally found asleep at the bottom of it; if
he has a message to carry, ten to one but he gets
drunk on the way, and sleeps over the time in
which it should be executed. But if it be diffi-
cult to deny these faults, it is easy to find a
palliation for them. The half-forced labour with
which the Hungarian peasants pay their rent, has
the natural tendency to produce not only a dis-
position, but a determination to do as little as
possible in any given time. Add to this, that
at least a third of the year is occupied by feasts
and fasts, when, by their religion, labour is for-
bidden them ; that the double tithes of the church
and landlord check improvement ; that the injustice
with which they have been treated has destroyed
all confidence in justice, and every sentiment o
security; and it will not then be difficult to
guess why they are idle. The weakness of body
induced by bad nourishment, and still more by
the fasts of the Greek church, which are main-
tained with an austerity of which Catholicism
has no idea, and which often reduces them to
the last degree of debility, and sometimes even
causes death, is another very efficient cause. I
have often heard this alluded to by land-owners,
who have declared, that with the best will the
Wallack could not perform the same amount
7) *- LL o/ii/^/viof A i » E>*rvi r/u rr~ t n
140 SPIRIT OF ENTERPRISE.
of labour as the well-fed German or Magyar.
An English labourer, of that sturdy independent
caste which is not yet, thank God, extinct among
us, observed to his travelled master who was tell-
ing him with how much less food the poor on
the Continent were contented, " Look ye, sir,
them foreign chaps may eat and drink less than
we do, but I'll warrant they work less too. Them
as does not live well, can't work well." Never
did philosophy utter a more certain truth.
Another cause for laziness may be found in
the paucity of the Wallaces wants, and in the
ease with which they are supplied. The earth,
almost spontaneously, affords him maize for his
polenta, — or mamaliga, as he calls it, — and his wife
manufactures from the wool and hemp of his little
farm all that is required for his household use and
personal clothing.
Many Hungarians, I know, hold that it would
be impossible to cultivate, were rents substituted
for Robot, especially where the peasantry are Wai-
lacks ; but only let commerce open a fair market
and introduce desirable objects of purchase, and the
Wallack will scarcely belie principles of which all
ages and nations have proved the truth. There
is no want of enterprise among them, for nothing
pleases them more than a little commercial specu-
lation. Should a peculiarly fine season have sent
a better crop than usual, the Wallack will load his
little waggon, harness his oxen, provide himself
SAY/NG
THE
INGRATITUDE.
with his maize loaf and bit of bacon, and set off for
some distant market where he thinks he can turn
his produce to account. It is true, he sleeps on the
top of his load the whole way, perhaps he drinks
a good part of the money before he gets back, pro-
bably a Jew cheats him out of the rest of it in
exchange for some worthless trinkets for his wife, —
still the spirit of commercial enterprise is there,
little as its benefits are felt.
When the new road was cutting between Orsova
and Moldova, there was no difficulty in finding
Wallack workmen at eightpence per day, though
they were employed at a labour to which they were
unaccustomed, which prevented them from return-
ing to their houses, obliged their wives to bring
them food from a great distance, and exposed them
to many inconveniences attendant on the nature of
the undertaking. Regular payment has great at-
tractions; and, if successful in one case, there is
every reason to believe it would be so in others
where the circumstances are still more favourable.
When I hear the Wallack peasant accused of
want of gratitude, I am apt to lose patience, for
he has had so very little opportunity of indulging
in that feeling, that it is rather the fault of his
^.oppressors than of himself, if it be totally eradi-
/ cated from his nature. But I question the fact :
in some cases, his conduct bears the appearance
of ingratitude, merely because he suspects the
\ motive with which a benefit is conferred ; but
-^ '. t *> _ ^-
SAHS.
142 INGRATITUDE.
when understood, it is felt and acknowledged. An
intimate friend of mine, who, during the prevalence
of the cholera which raged so fearfully in Transyl-
vania in 1836, remained in his village, and who,
aided by his lady, rendered every assistance which
it was possible, both by medicine and personal ad-
vice, to the poor around him, had occasion, after
the cessation of the disease, and at the commence-
ment of harvest to leave home for a short time.
He hastened back, anxious to provide for the exi-
gencies of the season, which require the greatest
exertions on the part of the master in this coun-
try, and on his arrival he was astonished to find
everything finished. The peasants had collected
together of their own accord, and agreed to join
their labour, cut his corn, and get in his harvest
before he came back, to show their gratitude for
his kindness to them in the hour of need.
Ignorant as the Wallack peasant may be, he can
distinguish between the man who merely wishes to
benefit him and the man who really does so. Every
landlord knows, that to gain his Wallack peasants'
hearts, it is only necessary that he should look
in upon their feasts, and accept their invitations
to marriages and funerals ; in short, it is only
necessary that he should appear to be interested
in what really interests them, and he is certain
of their love.
The intractable obstinacy, which is often charged
against these people because they refuse instruc-
LOVE OF PARENTS. 143
tion and decline well-meant but injudicious efforts
to improve them, often arises from the affection
they entertain for their national language and
religion, and from the fear that such means are
employed only to rob them of these their only trea-
sures. A gentleman, who was desirous of improv-
ing his peasantry, established a school, appointed
and paid a master, and ordered that all the children u*\ m >
should attend. His chief object was to teach the
Magyar language, an object very desirable, and one
which, by judicious management, might be effected J-Q j
in time; but, unfortunately, in the present instance, OF f-t
this was the first thing begun with. On revisiting _. ,
his estate, after half a year's absence, he found his r,/\\f
school-room entirely deserted, and the schoolmaster "^ „ ,
declaring that he could get no one to come to him.
On remonstrating with them, the peasants, with that y.
stupid air which the countryman can assume so well ^ "
when he wishes to conceal his cunning, answered, ~? ;
that they were afraid their children might become JUS'l
wiser than themselves, and cease to obey them. In <5< F
all probability, the priest had become alarmed, ex- ^ "
cited the fears of his flock, and forbidden them the ^ t
£L I A
school. A little prudence, personal attention, and
foresight, would easily overcome such obstacles. '^ '
One of the Wallack's most prominent virtues is,
his love for his parents, and his respect and care for
them in their old age. They would consider it a
disgrace to allow any one else to support their aged
and poor, while they could do it themselves ; and I
144 SUPERSTITION.
certainly do not remember to have seen any beggars
among them. The idiot is here, as with all the pea-
sants of Hungary, considered a privileged person, and
is allowed to make himself at home in every cottage.
There is among the Wallacks, a peculiar tenacity
to localities, which, besides having maintained them
in this land, where Romans, Goths, Vandals, and
Huns, in vain tried to gain a permanent footing,
still attaches them, notwithstanding the injuries and
injustice to which they are exposed, so forcibly to
their native villages, that if a possibility of exist-
ence remains, they rarely quit them. This tenacity
is an important fact, and ought to make the Mag-
yars very cautious how they attempt to force prema-
turely any reform in language, religion, or customs,
onjsuch a people. They may, perhaps, be led, — no
one yet has been able to drive them. Rude as he
is, the Wai lack feels deeply ; he loves the land his
fathers tilled, the house his fathers lived in, the
soil where their bones have found a resting-place.
Such sentiments may sometimes interfere with the
schemes of the improver, or the profits of the spe-
culator ; but, utilitarian as I am, I should be sorry
to see this stuff of the heart bartered for such gains
as theirs : I hate the pseudo-philosophy which can-
not appreciate the utility of sentiment and beauty.
United to a very strong religious feeling, which
they manifest sufficiently by the exertions they
make to obtain suitable places of worship, they
possess a mass of superstition which mixes itself
SUPERSTITION. 145
up with every action of their lives. Many of their
beliefs and superstitious observances strongly re-
semble those of some other nations ; whether from
direct communication, or because similarity of cir-
cumstances produces similarity of ideas, I leave
others to decide. The notion of hidden treasures
being concealed under old castles, in tombs, and
such like places, is very common ; and, as in Tartary
and Circassia, the peasants here believe them to be
guarded by some evil spirit. In the old castle of
Gyalu, formerly a fortress of Rakotzy, now ren-
dered a very agreeable residence by Count Banffy,
it has always been said that the treasures of that
unfortunate prince were buried. A few years since,
some of the servants obtained permission to dig
under the great gateway, where rumour located
the hidden wealth, and to search for it, and they
proceeded accordingly with their task ; but on the
second day, or rather night, — for they worked in
darkness, — something so mysterious and horrible
took place, that one of the men died of fright
soon after, and the others begged permission to
be sent away, though nothing could ever draw
from them the cause of their alarm, or induce them
to recommence their search.
Like the Turks, the Wai lacks ornament their
burial places by planting a tree at the head and
another at the foot of every grave ; but, instead of
the funereal cypress, they plant the swetschen or
plum, from which they make their brandy, — a very
VOL. II. L
146 DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES.
literal illustration " of seeking consolation from the
tomb." For the death of near relations, they mourn
by going bare-headed for a certain time ; — a severe
test of sincerity in a country where the excesses of
heat and cold are so great as here.
The village-well is still, all over Hungary, the
favourite gossiping spot for matrons and maids.
There is a custom which I often noticed among the
Wallacks, of throwing over a small quantity of the
water from the full pitcher before it is carried
away. It appears that this is done to appease the
spirit of the well, who might otherwise make her
pure draught an evil-bearing potion. Has this not
some analogy to the Roman libations to their gods ?
The analogy, if it be one, is strengthened by the
classically formed earthen vessels which the Wal-
lacks commonly use, and which are often exceed-
ingly elegant.
The only occupation in which the Wallack shows
any peculiar talent, is that of a carpenter ; here, I
believe, he is allowed to excel. His house frequently
bears proof of his taste in this particular in the
wooden ornaments about the gates, windows, and
roof; and it is rarely the church and cross are not
adorned with the rude carvings of the Wallack's
knife. Domestic manufactures, too, assume an im-
portance unknown amongst more civilized people.
The Wallack grows his own flax, his wife spins it
into yarn, weaves it into cloth, dyes it of various
colours, cuts it out, and works it up into clothes for
VARHELY MILLS.
147
her family. The wool goes through nearly the same
processes ; and is made to serve for leg- wrap-
pings, aprons, jackets, and cloaks. The sheepskin
cap and sandals are mostly of home fabrication,
so that this ignorant peasant has more knowledge
of the ways and means of procuring for himself
what is necessary for his existence and happiness
than half the wise men of Europe : that he should
not, however, be a perfect master of so many trades
is scarely wonderful.
Varhely contains some sad specimens of essays
in the millwright's art. Along the brook, which
bounds one side of the village, we observed a num-
ber of small wooden buildings placed across the
stream, and rising considerably above its surface.
One of these boxes, about eight feet square, we
entered, and found it a very primitive mill, man-
aged by two girls. The wheel was horizontal, and
placed in the middle of the stream, and below the
mill ; the water falling about one foot on the some-
what spoonshaped paddles. I do not know whether
the reader ever noticed the wheel in a patent
chimney-top, because the idea might have been
borrowed from a Varhely mill, so similar are they
in form.
The chief amusement of the Wallacks, after
sleeping and smoking, is dancing to the bagpipe
or fiddle. On the Sunday evening, a dozen men
will collect together, and, joining arms, dance in
a circle, alternately advancing and retiring, beating
L 2
148 THE DEVIL'S DANCERS.
time with the feet, clapping the hands, and singing.
The women in the mean time stand round, waiting
till one or more of the men start out from the
circle, seize their fair prey, whirl her round for
some time in a rude waltz, and then, leaving her,
return to the circle, dance again the same round,
and again, as the fancy seizes, choose another fair
one for the waltz.
The Wallack is a most resolute keeper of feasts,
and he very often at these times contracts debts,
— which are always scrupulously paid, — to enable
him to entertain with becoming honour his friends
of the neighbouring villages. On such occasions,
oxen and sheep are roasted whole ; wine and brandy
flow in rivulets ; the seigneur is invited in the good
old fashion to come and sanction by his presence his
peasants' sports ; and for three whole days a scene
of wild revelry, which often ends a little a Vlrland-
aise, is kept up, with a vigour of which one would
scarcely have believed them capable.
The Wallacks, especially those of this neigh-
bourhood, have a custom of which I never heard
elsewhere. A party of idle young fellows sell them-
selves, as they say, to the devil, for a term of three,
five, or seven years, — the number must be unequal,
or the devil will not hold the bargain, — engaging to
dance without ceasing during the whole of that
period, except when they sleep ; in consideration of
which, they expect their infernal purchaser will
supply them with food and wine liberally, and
COUNTRY FARE. 149
render them irresistible among the rustic belles.
Accordingly, dressed in their gayest attire, these
merry vagabonds start out from their native village,
and literally dance through the country. Every-
where they are received with open arms ; the men
glad of an excuse for jollity, the women anxious,
perhaps, to .prove their power, all unite to feed and
f£te the devil's dancers ; so that it is scarcely won-
derful there should be willing slaves to so merry
a servitude. When their time is up, they return
home and become quiet peasants for the rest of
their lives.
We had now spent two or three days at Varhely,
and it was quite time we should relieve the hospita-
ble family who had received us from the burthen
of our visit. When we found it so late on the
second day, that we could scarcely get to the next
place before dark hour, I desired the servant to inti-
mate our wish to trespass on them for another night.
A smile lit up the old lady's countenance as she came
in, and assured us as eloquently as words which we
did not understand, and looks that we did, could
do, that we were welcome to stay as long as we
pleased. It was a constant cause of regret to us
that we could only communicate with these good
people through the servant, for they frequently
came and sat with us; and indeed the pretty
little daughter was generally at work in our apart-
ment the whole afternoon. Though frugal, our fare
had been good ; and our supper of this evening
150 BUFFALO'S MILK.
may serve as a sample. First, came on a paprika
hendel, — not a stewed fowl with red pepper, such
as is often served up at more polished tables, —
but a large tureen of rich greasy soup, red with
paprika, and flavoured by a couple of fowls cut
up and swimming in it. After this, came a dish
made of broken barley and milk, forming a thickish
paste, and, though not tempting in appearance, very
good. Some remarkably fine potatoes, boiled in
their jackets, and some fresh butter, followed by a
dessert of plums, apples, pears, and grapes, con-
cluded the meal. Meat we had only once, for in
these small villages where no rich proprietor lives,
butcher's meat cannot always be obtained. Wine
or beer, as I have said, they had absolutely none ;
and, but for the thoughtfulness of the lady of the
Mosaic, we should have been condemned to water.
Here, as well as in other parts of Transylvania,
we enjoyed the luxury of buffalo's cream with our
coffee. Paris must hide her head for very shame,
— she has no idea of the luxury of true cafe a la
creme. In the first place, the buffalo's milk is
much richer than that of the cow, and then the
method of preparing it here is perfect. Over-night,
a little three-legged earthen pot, a labos, is placed
over a very slow fire, and, as the cream rises to the
surface and clots, it is gently moved on one side
with a spoon to allow more to rise on the vacant
space. This is placed aside, and the next morning
is boiled for use ; of course, the clot is the best
DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 151
part, and a good house-wife divides it out with
great exactness. Buffaloes, rarely seen in Hungary,
are exceedingly common here, and their slow move-
ments seem to suit the Wallack precisely. Their
power is reckoned equal to that of twice as many
oxen, but their pace is only half as fast. In hot
weather, the sight of water renders them beyond
all control, and many amusing tales are told of car-
riages lodged in the middle of rivers, spite of driver,
whip, or goad. When excited, the fury of the
buffalo is said to be terrific, he tramples to death
the object of his rage, and a year rarely happens in
which some peasants do not fall victims to these
shapeless monsters.
During our sojourn at Varhely, we observed a
deficiency of what is considered, in every other part
of Europe, the most necessary article of bedroom
furniture, and for which it was rather perplexing
to find a substitute. It is odd enough, that among
the old-fashioned and primitive of the Transylva-
nians, an idea of shame is attached to the employ-
ment of such articles within the precincts of the
buildings they inhabit. This might be accounted
for by the circumstance that the bedrooms were
always formerly, and even still are among the
less wealthy, used as sitting-rooms; but it would
appear that it springs from a deeper feeling, for
the Magyars have a_sense^o£ cleajiliness__.and of
decency connected with such matters which the
traveller will search for in vain over the rest
152 DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS.
(of continental Europe, and which even we should
(consider hyperdelicate. None baveinorejreju-
;4ices, ifsuch theycan be ^alled,_on matters of
decency, than the^jlu^^ixian^^easants.| I Certain
duties, which the delicate English house-maid does
not consider below her, the Magyar girl cannot be
brought to perform ; so that in many houses, where
what the old people call dirtv_German customs are
introduced — for everything a greybeard thinks dirty
or immoral he calls German, — a gipsy girl is kept
expressly to execute the duties necessarily arising
therefrom. This poor creature, in consequence, is
regarded as unclean by the rest of the servants.
From the evidently straitened circumstances of
this family, we were anxious in some way to repay
them for the trouble we had given them, and
the servant said he thought it would be most
acceptable in money. They received what we
offered without shame or pretended hesitation. I
was not less pleased with this, than with the kind-
ness and courtesy of their whole conduct towards
us. At first, when asked for a night's lodging, they
would not hear of anything in the way of remune-
ration ; but when we had stayed some days with
them, and had put them to considerable expense,
and when they saw that we were rich enough to
pay, they then no longer hesitated to receive it.
VALLEY OF I1ATSZEG. 153
CHAPTER VI.
ROUTE TO KLAUSENBURG.
Valley of Hatszeg.— Wallack Gallantry.— Transylvanian Travel-
ling.— Arrival at Vayda Hunyad. — The Gipsy Girl.— Hun-
yadi Janos. — Castle of Hunyad. — The painted Tower. — A
Deputation. — A Rogue found out. — Deva. — Valley of the
Maros. — H taken for a Spy. — Visit to the Mines of Nagy
Ag. — Politeness from a Stranger. — Transylvanian Post-office.
— Sandstone of the Felek.
IT was on a cloudy wet day that we turned our
backs on Varhely, so that although we crossed the
entire valley, or rather plain of Hatszeg, we saw
but little of its beauty ; occasionally a bright sun-
beam burst out, and gave us a glimpse of its glories,
but it passed too soon to allow us to appreciate or
enjoy them. We had been warned that the roads
in this neighbourhood were bad, but we found them
worse even than we had expected, and yet this is
the shortest and most direct route from Transyl-
vania to the Danube. From the state, however,
in which the road is kept, often so as to be dan-
gerous, and at times even impassable, the one by
154 WALLACK GALLANTRY.
Deva and Lugos, though much longer, is used in
preference.
It must be very bad weather indeed which the
traveller, in a new country, cannot turn to account
if he will ; in the present instance the wet muddy
road afforded us an opportunity of witnessing a
striking example of Wallack gallantry and Wai-
lack modesty. A stout peasant, wrapped up in his
guba of thick white cloth, was riding very com-
posedly through the wet, for it could not hurt him,—
while his wife was trotting in the mud by his side,
her clothes — proh pudor ! — gathered up to her hips
to keep them out of the dirt. This mode of dis-
posing of their dress is exceedingly common among
the Wallack women, and it is not without some
astonishment that the stranger sees half a dozen
of them prepare in this manner to cross a brook,
which they do without the least feeling of shame.
The town of Hatszeg had no attractions to detain
us, and we started next morning for Hunyad,1 which
we were assured we should reach in two hours.
The first part of the road was bad, and we began
to doubt if we should arrive so soon as we ex-
pected. The horses and driver we had engaged
from the neighbourhood of Karansebes, to take us
as far as we required — for in this part of Tran-
sylvania, the peasantry are so poor that they have
few horses, and use either oxen or buffaloes for agri-
cultural purposes — were evidently unequal to the
task. I wished much to persuade our coachman
TRANSYLVANIAN TRAVELLING. 155
to let me take a relay of oxen, but he declared his
horses were capable of anything, and would not
hear of help. The first hill beyond Hatszeg occu-
pied us an hour, for the road was nothing more
than soft tenacious clay, good enough perhaps in
dry weather, but now almost impassable. Fortu-
nately we were not without cause for consolation ;
for on getting out of the carriage to walk, and look-
ing back, our eyes fell on such a scene as I do not
think the world can equal in loveliness. The plain
from Varhely to Hatszeg, yellow with the over-ripe
maize, traversed by half a dozen streams, broken by
low hills, and sprinkled over with cottages and
country-houses, lay stretched out at our feet, its
mountain boundaries rising through the clouds,
which hung on their sides, and disclosing their
summits, whitened by the first fall of the autumn
snow, and all heightened by the magic lights and
shades of a fitful sky, formed a picture of most
exquisite beauty.
The first hill conquered, we descended to the
village of Szilvas, a collection of poor huts, appa-
rently shut out from the world by the hills which
surround it on every side. Up the steepest of these
hills our road now lay. In vain the horses exerted
themselves, — they were quite tired out. As we
passed through the village, S had observed
some oxen in a yard, and for these we now sent.
But their Wallack owner saw our need, and would
only let us have them on paying an exorbitant sum,
156 TRANSYLVANIAN TRAVELLING.
and that, too, before they left his yard. There was
no help; the money was paid, and the four oxen
were harnessed to the four horses. These beasts,
however, seemed to know the place, and most re-
solutely declined drawing in the right direction, and
not all the flogging and pushing of the drivers could
prevent them from dragging us back into the
village. The peasant, however, was as cunning
as the oxen, and he determined to deceive them
by going another way, and, by crossing the ploughed
fields, escape that part of the road. So far all
went well; but we again reached the road, and
now both horses and oxen stood stock still ; they
seemed to have come to a mutual agreement to
draw no further. As for flogging and shouting, there
was no lack of either, for there were five of us,
and we all united voices and hands in the labour.
The beasts only kicked. Again we sent off for aid,
and comforted ourselves in the mean time with the
spare fare — some hard-boiled eggs and well garlicked
salami — which our prog-basket afforded. After
about an hour's waiting without any appearance
of the arrival of fresh relay — travelling in Tran-
sylvania demandeth much patience — a merry-looking
fellow, with a strong arm and long whip, came
singing by, and inquired the reason of our untimely
halt. No sooner did he hear that want of power,
not want of will, detained us, than angry, apparently
at the unreasonable conduct of the cattle — with
whom I am by no means sure he had not, like the
A TRANSYLVANIAN VIEW. 157
Irish whisperer, some secret intelligence — he gave
a few such persuading flourishes of his long whip,
that off set both oxen and horses, nor did they
stop their gallop till they reached the top of the
mountain.
While we waited there for the servant's return
we had leisure to enjoy the extensive panorama
spread out before us — plains, valleys, rivers, and
wooded mountains, backed by still higher moun-
tains rising over each other, as far as the eye could
reach. The valleys of Hatszeg and Hunyad, the
plain before Varhely, the hill of Deva, with its
ruined castle, lay all before us ; beyond them
stretched out the Iron-Door Pass, the often-men-
tioned mountains of Wallachia, and the gold bear-
ing peaks round Szalatna. We could plainly per-
ceive too the course of the river Strehl, now formed
into a respectable stream by the union of the many
brooks of the valley of Hatszeg, and which had cut
itself a passage through the rocks to the Maros. It
is in this direction that the road between Hatszeg
and Deva ought to pass. I feel convinced that the
Roman road took this course, and as soon as ever
this part of Transylvania receives its fair share of
attention,- — it is now by far the most uncultivated
and savage, — a great commercial road will un-
doubtedly unite, in this direction, Transylvania with
the Danube.
Before we reached Hunyad, H , who had
been left at Varhely in hopes of getting some
158 ARRIVAL AT HUNYAD.
views of the valley, which, however, the cloudy
weather prevented, overtook us in a light waggon
of the country, with which he had galloped over
difficulties our heavier carriage had stuck fast in.
It was quite dark when we stopped before some
house where the sound of music led us to suppose
we had found an inn. We were mistaken, however,
and while the servant was making inquiries, and re-
ceiving answers which he could not understand, as
to the whereabouts of the hostelry, a gipsy girl
came out of the house, and hearing the nature of
our difficulty, at once took the arrangement of the
matter on herself. At a single bound she threw
herself into H 's waggon, seated herself beside
him, and giving her orders to the peasant, desired
him to drive through the river up the steep bank
and along the deep road: — we being left to follow
them to the inn as best we could. Before we arrived,
our gipsy guide had roused the whole house, got
the keys of the chambers, unlocked the rooms, and
while we were yet joking H on his adventure,
the heroine of it had already lit the fires, mended
the cracked stoves,'* got the carriage unloaded,
laid the cloth, and was cooking the supper, ere it
* The common stoves are made of tiles of coarse earthenware,
the separate parts being united together by clay, which of course
requires constant reparation, especially at the commencement of
winter. The vessel of water which Dr. Arnot observed on the
stoves on the Continent, and which he supposes to be placed there
to supply moisture to the atmosphere, is intended to absorb the
bad smell which a stove often emits.
OUR PRETTY GIPSY.
159
was yet ordered. Everything was so quickly done,
that it had an air of conjuration about it. It
was strange to find one whom, five minutes before,
we had never even seen, already our guide, our
hostess, our cook, our factotum. Nor was the
interest lessened when we had time to observe our
mysterious friend. Lila was a pretty gipsy girl
of about sixteen, with features more regular than
those of her tribe commonly are, but with all a
gipsy's cunning flattery on her tongue. She was
100 OUR PRETTY GIPSY.
rather fancifully dressed, for over the Wallack
shirt she had a bodice of scarlet cloth, embroi-
dered with black. The coloured fillet over her
forehead was ornamented with a gay bow in front,
and behind each ear was a nosegay of the bright-
est flowers. Her rich brown hair, parted in front,
fell in a profusion of clustering curls on her neck,
and hung down the back in the long-braided band
of maidenhood. She spoke alternately Wallack,
Magyar, and German, as she in turns scolded, di-
rected, and coaxed. Before we ceased wondering at
so pleasant an apparition, a good supper was smok-
ing on the table, and the pretty gipsy by her laughing
and talking almost persuaded us that we were sup-
ping on ambrosia, while she played the gentle Hebe
to our godships. We could never understand the
mystery which seemed to belong to Lila's movements.
They told us she was a gipsy of the neighbourhood,
who often came into the town, and who was allowed
to be about the house as much as she pleased.
She had no occupation there, yet she had done every-
thing. The gipsies are generally such rogues that
they are scarcely permitted to enter any house,
yet everything was perfectly secure with her.
Our first duty at Hunyad, after taking breakfast,
which Lila, dressed more gaily than before, had pre-
pared for us, was to visit the old castle, as it is his-
torically interesting, having been built by the greatest
man Transylvania ever produced, Hunyadi Janos,
the Governor of Hungary and father of Mathias Cor-
HUNYADI. 161
vinus. Tradition assigns to Hunyadi a descent from
Sigismund, King of Hungary. The tale runs thus : —
As Sigismund was passing through Transylvania,
on his way to subdue his rebel vassal, the Woiwode
of Wallachia, chance threw in his way a beautiful
Wallack girl, Elizabeth Marsinai, the pride of the
valley of Irlatszeg. Without disclosing his rank
the gay monarch triumphed over the affections of
the simple peasant, and as he left her to prosecute
his wars, he gave her his signet ring, with the injunc-
tion, that when the fruit of their love should see
the light, she should carry it to the King, in Buda,
who on recognising the ring would be sure to treat
her and her child with kindness.
The following year, as Elizabeth and the infant
lade their progress towards the distant capital, the
young mother, overcome by fatigue, fell asleep under
the shade of a tree. The child in the mean time
played with the ring, which hung like an amulet
mnd his neck. A mischievous daw, who watched
the infant's sports, at last hopped from his perch to
join the play, and seizing the bauble in his beak,
flew off with the prize. Awakened by the child's
cries, Elizabeth saw with horror all her hopes of
greatness dependent on the humour of a wicked
wilful bird. Her brother, her companion and pro-
tector in this long journey, was fortunately a keen
sportsman ; and, as he heard her wailing, an arrow
from his bow laid the cause of her sorrows at her
feet. The ring recovered, the little party joyfully
VOL. II. M
162 HUNYADI.
resumed their way, and when they reached their
destination, and recounted their adventures, the
delighted monarch could not sufficiently testify his
pleasure. He at once bestowed on his son the
name of Hunyadi, and presented him with the town
of Hunyad, and sixty surrounding villages. The
surname of Corvinus, later adopted, with the arms,
a crow and ring, were assumed in memory of the
events of this journey, Szonakos, the village which
gave birth to Elizabeth, was declared tax-free for
ever ; a right which it still enjoys.
The name of Hunyadi was destined to eclipse
even that of his royal father. Brought up amidst
the wars, to which the state of the times and the
increasing boldness and power of the Turks gave
rise, Hunyadi found himself called on at an early
age to protect the district over which he had been
placed from the inroads of the barbarians. In the
reign of Sigismund the Turks had ventured, for the
first time, across the boundaries of Hungary, and
already had the southern parts of Transylvania been
rendered scarcely habitable, so frequent and so
fierce had their attacks become. After the death of
Albert, and before his successor was determined on,
Hunyadi gained a series of glorious victories over
the Moslems, following them through Wallachia,
across the Danube into Bulgaria, and obliging them
to yield up possession of the fortresses of Servia
and Bosnia, thus placing all these countries under
the vassalage of Hungary. By the support chiefly
HUNYADI. 163
of Hunyadi, now strengthened by his victories, La-
dislaus V. was secured on the throne, and his first
act was to give peace to the kingdom, by a truce
with the Turks, most solemnly ratified for a period
of ten years. To this treaty Hunyadi was a party,
nor can any sophistry release him from the disgrace
of having broken his word when, only a few days
after, the Pope's legate, by that miserable sophism
of the church, that faith is not to be held with
infidels, persuaded him to violate a solemn engage-
ment, and, unprovoked, recommence the war against
the Moslems. The treachery was, however, fearfully
punished before Varna — the false king killed, his
army destroyed, and Hunyadi himself, flying and at
last imprisoned, was just retribution for the crime.
After the death of the king, Hunyadi was ap-
pointed Governor of Hungary, during the minority
of Ladislaus VI., and though at the head of a power-
ful army, and surrounded by a large party, he never
attempted to grasp a higher power than that which
the assembled people had delegated to him. When
at the age of thirteen the king was placed upon the
throne by the machinations of Hunyadi's sworn
foes — no great man had worse ones, — he at once
gave up his power into the feeble hands which could
scarcely have wrested it from him. The feelings of
the country, however, were so strongly with him,
thathe was appointed captain-general of the king-
dom, and loaded with honours and endowments.
The Turks had now taken Constantinople, and all
M2
164 HUNYADI.
Europe was roused against them. Crusades were
preached ; the Monk Capistran, roused Christendom
from its lethargy ; and Hunyadi, aided by the prac-
tised troops from Germany, again took the field. His
last campaign was his most brilliant one. After a con-
test of three successive days, Belgrade fell into his
hands, and the Infidel hordes were pursued by the
victorious Christians almost to the gates of Constan-
tinople. But their Emperor had little time to enjoy
his victory, for in a few days disease consumed a life
which so many wars had left untouched. But for
Hunyadi Janos it is exceedingly probable that the
Turks would have swept over the whole of Europe, as
so many of their Eastern predecessors in invasion had
already done, and instead of being only on the out-
skirts as they now are, we might have seen them
established in its very centre. Their career of vic-
tory was, however, checked, their thoughts of con-
quest turned in another direction, and although,
when weaker hands than those of Hunyadi guided
the reins of government, they did gain a temporary
footing in Hungary, yet the confidence inspired by his
victories enabled the Magyars to make head against
them, and finally to expel them from the land.
The castle of Vayda* Hunyad is finely situated
on a bold precipitous limestone-cliff, washed on
three sides by two small rivers, the Cserna and
* It is called Vayda (Woiwode, or Governor) Hunyad, from the
rank of the person to whom it gave its name, and to distinguish it
from Banffy Hunyad, a town in another part of Transylvania.
CASTLE OF HUNYAD.
165
Zalasd, which meet at this point. On the opposite
side of the Zalasd, rises another rock of the same
height, which slopes gradually down to the town,
and is fortified. From this second rock the castle
is approached by a long wooden bridge, at a dizzy
height above the stream and road below. The end
of the bridge nearest the castle, by a simple con-
trivance, is made to rise and fill up the portal of
the watch-tower, which it closes like a door. This
is the simplest drawbridge and gate, as well as the
most effectual, I ever saw, and, it is still in con-
stant use. There is no pulley or chain employed ;
it is so balanced that it can be raised by placing the
foot on the opposite end, the weight of the body
166 CASTLE OF HUNYAD.
being sufficient to turn the scale and to raise the
huge mass in the air. The part of the castle on the
right of the entrance is that built by Hunyadi, that
on the left was repaired, and in part built by a Count
Bethlen, at a later date. The wall on the right is
almost unbroken by windows, except near the top,
where a singularly elegant Gothic balcony runs along
its whole length, forming a succession of windows
fitted for the lighting of a long hall or gallery.
On crossing the bridge, one of the officers of
the iron-works — for the castle now serves as a
depot for the Government iron obtained from the
mines in the neighbourhood — very politely offered
to conduct us over it. The interior forms an ir-
regularly shaped court, of which the solid rock
constitutes the pavement, and is completely sur-
rounded by the buildings of the castle. A gallery
runs round three sides of this court, and most of
the windows open upon it. We entered by a Go-
thic door on the right, and found ourselves in a
large room, extending along the whole of one side
of the castle divided by pillars in the centre, and
supporting a number of arches, on which rests the
groined ceiling. On the capital of one of the
pillars, a scroll, picturesquely disposed, bears the
following inscription in Gothic characters : —
"JJjoc opu0 fecit fieri magnificus 3fof)aittte0 ^uniato
l&egni ^ungariee ©ufiernator &no JBni 1452."
The proportions of this room are at present de-
stroyed, by a partition which cuts off a part of it
CASTLE OF HUNYAD. 167
for the convenience of the Government officers, who
use it as a counting-house. The rest of the space
is occupied by bars of iron. It is probable that this
part formed the Ritter Saal, though they assured us
it was on the story above. This, however, we found
divided into three or four very handsome rooms,
which are said to have been fitted up for and used
by the Emperor Francis, some years since. From
these rooms glass doors open to the Gothic balcony
I before spoke of, which is divided into several
compartments by solid walls, forming the most
lovely little boudoirs imaginable. The opposite
side of the court is occupied by some of the officers,
as a dwelling, and a very handsome one it makes.
It is kept in very good order ; indeed the whole
building seems in good repair, and nothing can be
more elegant than the drawing-rooms which the
huge round-towers form, nothing more beautiful
than the views presented from their windows.
About the largest tower there is something mys-
terious, for to all appearance it is a solid mass of ma-
sonry ; nor could our guide give any further account
of it. Attempts had been made, ho said, to pene-
trate it, but nothing had been discovered ; it was
found solid throughout. The exterior of this tower
is still painted, as tradition reports it has been ever
since its erection. It is in black and white, disposed
chequerwise, and looks as ugly as possible. I
have noticed in speaking of Arva, that the ancient
castles of Hungary were mostly painted outwardly ;
168 THE PAINTED TOWER.
at the present time Hunyad is the only one, per-
haps, in which the custom is maintained. I have
observed, however, other buildings painted in Hun-
gary even at the present day. At Lugos, the Greek
church is ornamented in this way. If I mistake
not, private houses, in some old towns, still have
their walls painted ; but the best example, if I may
be allowed to anticipate, is in the old court-house
£ and prison of Klausenburg. This building is co-
vered over with allegorical designs, and is divided
into compartments bearing wise Latin inscriptions,
in reference to the purposes of the building, and
the duties of its occupants. I am not aware that
this custom ever prevailed in England, or in any
other part of the Continent except Hungary, with
respect to the outer walls of castles, common as it is
in the inclosed courts and porticos of Italy. I know
of no instance in which the manner called fresco
has been employed in Hungary ; those I have seen
were all in common oil colours.
We were a little surprised on our return to the
inn, to receive a request, through our servant, that
we should accept a complimentary visit from some
of the inhabitants of the town, as we were the
first Englishmen who were known to have passed
through Hunyad. It would have been difficult to
refuse this proffered civility, however little inclina-
tion we might feel to play the part assigned us,
and we therefore ordered in as many chairs as our
miserable room could contain, and turning the beds
A DEPUTATION. 169
into sofas, we sat in due state to receive the dele-
gates of Vayda Hunyad to our noble selves, — the
wandering representatives of the United kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland. The servant opened the
door with considerable ceremony, and announced the
names, titles and occupations of four as fat little
burgesses as could be found in any snug country
town of our own island. The spokesman of the
party, the fattest and most important person, was
the doctor, who expressed in a very complimentary
speech, in German, the pleasure they had in seeing
Englishmen, members of a constitutional country,
and Protestants like themselves, in their town, and
as we were the first who had ever so far honoured
it, they could not omit the opportunity, et cetera, et
cetera. Of course we could only express our deep
sense of the compliment paid us, our admiration of
the country, and our conviction, that as the facilities
of travelling became more general, the beauties of
Transylvania would attract many of our countrymen
to visit them. Thereupon Tokay and biscuits were
handed round, and a parley commenced, consisting
principally of questions on their side, apparently ar-
ranged by previous concert, and propounded by the
doctor, which were answered on our part as we were
able. They consisted chiefly of inquiries relative to
points in English law and government, which had
puzzled them — no wonder, for they sometimes puzzle
even their own authors — in reading the journals,
and in regard to the appearance and character of
170 A DEPUTATION.
public men whose acts or speeches had interested
them. This was another proof of the consideration
our dear native land enjoyed among strangers, and
we were delighted to satisfy to the best of our
power an interest so flattering to England, and so
useful to other constitutional countries. In teach-
ing the world that a peaceable reform, obtained by
moral arms alone, is more effectual than the most
brilliant revolution, England has done more for the
liberties of mankind than all the nations of ancient
or modern times.
After some time our visitors took their leave, and
we prepared to continue our journey, but a difficulty
arose which we had not expected. The bill which
the landlord presented to us for the very slender
accommodation received, was so exorbitant, that it
was impossible to overlook such gross imposition.
Suspecting that our servant was a rogue, I declined
his service as an interpreter on this occasion, and a
stranger kindly offered his assistance. It was well I
had recourse to this precaution, for I found the
rascal had been carousing all night with a party he had
accidentally met, and that he had desired the land-
lord to put the wine, — I forget how many quarts
each, — down to our account. On this exposure, and
on being subjected to some little abuse by the land-
lady for certain other offences, the fellow seized a
knife and advanced towards the woman with a threat
to murder her if she repeated her words. Luckily I
caught sight of the knife and obliged him to relin-
A ROGUE DETECTED. 171
quish it, but I shall not easily forget his appearance
at that moment. He was a strong-built man with an
expression of countenance much resembling a wolf,
and he had become excited to the utmost fury by the
discovery. He was red and foaming with rage when
I threatened to strike him to the ground (for I am
fortunately, a strong man), if he did not relinquish
the knife, but in an instant, with a power over him-
self I never saw equalled, he bowed low, and in his
usual humble voice replied, " Certainly, if my master
commands it." I need hardly say that I got rid of
him as soon as possible, for I hold that no rogue is
so dangerous as one who can command himself. On a
former occasion my suspicions had been raised against
him from finding my pistols unloaded and stuffed
with dirt ; a precaution which I have no doubt he
had adopted in case of detection in any roguery.
As we got into the carriage, Lila was there to
bid us adieu. Her beauty, her good-humour, and her
happy way of rendering herself useful, made us quite
sorry to part with her, and I believe S did pro-
pose to equip her " enjocke" and take her with us ;
but S is a wild fellow ! I know nothing can
be more ridiculous than to fancy a gipsy sentimental,
and yet, in spite of ridicule, I would swear I saw a
tear glisten in the poor girl's eye as we drove off.
A few kind words are rarely lost even on a gipsy.
At Deva, oui* next station, we spent, or rather
misspent, a couple of days ; for placing ourselves
under the guidance of a young gentleman who
172 GOLD MINES OF NAGY AG.
offered to show us the lions of the neighbourhood,
we saw only what he thought lions and not what
we should have selected as such.
About ten miles from Deva, there are some of
the richest gold mines in Transylvania, those of
Nagy Ag and Szekerem, and to these he promised
to conduct us. With great difficulty we got to the
foot of the mountain, over almost impassable roads,
where we found oxen ready to drag us up the nearly
perpendicular rock, and several peasants in attend-
ance to hold the carriage from falling over. We
had often occasion to wonder at the dislike the
Hungarian seems to have to walking, but from imi-
tation we fell into their customs, sitting still in our
carriage to be slowly dragged through and over
places which we could have surmounted much more
easily and quickly on foot. Once at the mines, we
were conducted along a new railway adit, which I
of course imagined would conduct us to the work-
ings; but, alas! it will only get there some years
hence, for it is yet unfinished, and in the mean
time we were obliged to content ourselves with the
ride on the railroad for our trouble, it being de-
clared too late to see the other works when we got
back. Our guide assured us that many ladies and
gentlemen came to see the railway, but nobody
thought of going into the mines, so that he had no
idea we could have wished such a thing.
The quantity of gold and silver obtained here,
though less than formerly, is still considerable ; not
DEVA. 173
less than one hundred and fifty marks of gold, and
seven hundred and fifty of silver, per annum. These
mines are peculiarly interesting to the mineralogist
as being the richest in tellurium of any in Europe ;
indeed it was here that metal was first discovered.
I afterwards saw a specimen of pure gold from
Szekerem, in the form of a tree, — I think mine-
ralogists call it tree-gold. It was two inches high,
standing quite out from the matrix, and was most
beautifully branched and foliated.
Deva, situated on the banks of the Maros, is
worth visiting, were it only for the view from the
old castle. On the very point of a rock, which rises
above the little town, stand the ruins of a fortress,
said to have been begun by the Romans, though
it was probably used for such purpose ever since
the country was inhabited. It is now, however,
a very small ruin, although a number of walls
and turrets on different parts of the hill show the
extent the castle once had. It has lately been
repaired in a tasteless manner, and now serves as a
watch-tower for a few frontier soldiers.
The view extends, towards the west, along the
beautiful valley of the Maros, and, to the east, as
far as the blue mountains of Zalatna, which were
tipped with the first fall of the autumn's snow.
Lover as I am of rivers and valleys, I know few
that I prefer to the Maros, and its vale. I shall
have opportunity enough hereafter of describing the
higher part of this river, for I afterwards traced it
174 VALLEY OF THE MAROS.
nearly to its source, but of its downward course I
may as well speak now, though I did not visit it till
a later period.
The first part of the Maros valley, towards the
borders of Hungary, is rich, well wooded, and occa-
sionally ornamented with pretty country houses, At
Dobra the road leaves it, and I know nothing more
of it till some time after it has reached Hungary.
Those, however, who are acquainted with the border
district, describe it as wild to the last degree ; — the
river bound in its channel by precipitous rocks,
and the valley darkened by forests of the native
oak which have never known the woodman's axe.
At Kapolnas the valley widens considerably, and
presents a scene of extraordinary loveliness. For
perhaps fifteen miles in length, by three or four
in width, extends a plain covered with white vil-
lages, and groaning under the richest crops of corn,
surrounded on every side by mountains covered
to their summits by forests of oak, and traversed
in its whole extent by the river now grown wide
and powerful.
There are few things in any country which have
struck me as being more beautiful than this part
of the valley of the Maros, but it is completely
unknown even to Hungarians. The whole of it at
present belongs to the Kammer ; and as it is sub-
ject to frequent inundations, against which no pre-
cautions are taken, its inhabitants are doomed to
much poverty and suffering. When sold, as it will
VALLEY OF THE MAROS. 175
shortly be, it is to be hoped that private capital and
enterprise will make it the elysium which Nature
seems to have intended it should become.
How far steam navigation will succeed on the
Maros, in its present state, is extremely doubt-
ful, as it is a very wide and wayward stream, and
in summer has sometimes not more than two feet
of water ; but there is no doubt it might be made
navigable, and probably it will be, as soon as in-
creased population on its banks shall demand an
outlet for their productions.
As H was too unwell to-day to climb the
castle-hill on foot, and yet unwilling to leave with-
out some memorial of the scene, a peasant was
found who undertook to convey him to the sum-
lit in a leiter-wagen. Up accordingly he went, and
just as he had placed himself comfortably to his
work, a borderer from the castle, stepping cauti-
ously as a cat about to seize a mouse, hastened
towards him till he was stopped at a little dis-
tance by the driver. H had observed the
man, but as the latter contented himself with
holding a long and loud colloquy with the Wai-
lack, and as H did not understand the lan-
guage, he took no further notice of him, nor
did the soldier offer any other molestation to the
artist, than by keeping a very sharp eye on his
movements, and never quitting the wagen till it
arrived at the inn. Judge then of H '& sur-
prise, on coming down, to be congratulated at his
176 H TAKEN FOR A SPY.
escape from imprisonment! The simple grenzer,
persuaded that the ruins of Deva formed a most
important fortress, had come to arrest the daring
spy who was taking a plan of its defences, and
was armed with a rope which he was just about
to throw over H 's arms when the peasant
interposed, and with great difficulty persuaded him
to delay the seizure till lie had accompanied him
to the village, and informed himself better on the
subject. It was a very good joke when so well over,
but it might have been otherwise ; to be suspected
as a spy, bound, and in the hands of a very rude
and ignorant soldiery, is a position by no means free
from danger.
Nor was this the only adventure which befell our
luckless friend at Deva. While quietly finishing his
sketches in the inn, he observed an ill-conditioned
fellow staring at him through the half-opened door,
when, calling the servant, he desired him to inquire
his business. Upon this the ill-conditioned man
became excessively abusive, declared that " H
was a spy, a rogue, a German, or something still
worse ; that he saw things which he was sure were
for no good, and that he would denounce him to
the authorities/' The servant requested him to
change his quarters, but he protested he was a
Nemes Ember, and would stay where he liked, and
do what he liked. As soon as the authorities heard
of this affair they sent to beg we would excuse the
brutality and ignorance of an individual who had
TRANSYLVANIAN ROADS. 177
never seen more of the world than his native county,
and who was notorious as one of the most trouble-
some fellows in it, assuring us at the same time
that they had taken care that we should not be
subject to any further molestation.
We had been promised vorspann at five in the
morning to take us on the next stage to Szasvaros:
but at ten, in spite of repeated demands, no horses
had appeared, and we were obliged to order post-
horses. In Transylvania, generally, it is extremely
difficult to obtain vorspann ; indeed, I believe it is
not allowed to any one except the officers of the
mnty or of the crown. On the other hand, the
is much better than in Hungary ; and the
principal roads are maintained in a state that
ought to put many continental states to the blush.
The cross roads, however, are in a most deplorable
condition here ; — nothing can be worse. Count
S , I remember, said he travelled for six weeks
in Transylvania, and was overturned six times.
As we approached Miihlenbach, where we meant
to remain for the night, a heavy snow-storm warned
us that winter was setting in, and induced us to
change our intended route, and, instead of proceed-
ing to Hermanstadt, to go directly to Kfatusunburg.
The inn was so full, that they had no apartment to
offer us but a very small room, where it was impos-
sible to stow three beds ; and we were preparing to
encounter the night and storm on the road, when a
gentleman, who had preceded us, sent to offer his
VOL. II. N
178 A STRANGER'S POLITENESS.
large room in exchange for our small one. As this
was a person we had never seen, and who knew only
that we were foreigners, and in difficulty, it is
worth adducing, as one of the thousand proofs of
the civilities we received merely in right of our
character as strangers. This gentleman joined us
in the evening, and proved to be a Szekler con-
nected with the post-office. He was a very agreea-
ble companion, from whom we received much infor-
mation, which the reader will have the benefit of at
the proper time and place. With respect to the
department in which he was employed, he assured
us, that the reports so often repeated of letters
being opened were entirely without foundation, as
far at least as Hermanstadt was concerned; and, he
believed, they were equally unfounded with respect
to every other place in Hungary and Transylvania.
As to what took place at Vienna, he knew only
from hearsay.
As we returned next morning for a short distance
on our road of the preceding evening, we found we
had passed over a plain of some extent, and called
from its richness the Kenyer Mezb* (bread-field), il-
lustrious in Transylvanian history for a great victory
gained over the Turks by one of their native princes,
Bathori Istvan, in 1479.
I shall say nothing more of our journey to Klaus-
enburg, which occupied us two days, for we scarcely
put our heads out of the carriages, so miserably
cold and wet had it become ; and, as we shall pass
THE SZAMOS. 179
over the same ground when we visit the mines
of Zalatna, it is of no importance. As we reached
the summit of the long hill, down which a wind-
ing road of two or three miles' descent leads to the
capital, the sun was pleased to show himself ere
he set over the now white mountains, and gave
us a beautiful glimpse of the valley of the Szamos,
with Klausenburg in the midst just below us. The
Szamos is the second river in Transylvania in point
of size, and flows through another of those valleys
which give to this country the appearance of a mass
of small mountains traversed in various directions
by rivers, which have cut out for themselves water-
courses from one hundred yards to a mile or two in
width, occasionally, where a tributary stream lends
its force, widening into small plains like those of
Hatszeg, Kenyer Mezo, Harom-sz£k, and Thorda.
The principal roads are formed along these valleys,
so that travelling in Transylvania presents a succes-
sion of beautiful scenes rarely to be met with in
other lands.
A curious substitute has been found for curb-
stones to the bridges and dangerous places in the
descent of the Felek hill. The stratum, a fine sand-
stone, has formed itself naturally, in some places,
into nearly perfect globes of considerable size, —
four-times that of a man's head, — which are used
as curb- stones, and which answer perfectly well for
the purpose to which they have been applied. I
observed one place on the road where these stones
N 2
180
THE FELEK.
were quarried, and it appeared that they were
formed between two layers of the sand-stone, some
of them assuming the cylindrical form ; but almost
all more or less nodulated. We galloped down the
Felek hill at a tremendous rate, chiefly, I believe,
because the weak horses, and weaker harness, had
not strength enough to hold back ; nor did we
feel ourselves safe till we whirled through one of
the old-fashioned gates of Klausenburg, and were
rattling over its rough pavement. The only toler-
able inn within the walls was full, and we were
fain to content ourselves with such accommoda-
tion as was furnished by the best of those in the
suburbs.
VAULEY OF TEE MAEOS FROM DEVA CASTLE
TRANSYLVANIA. 181
CHAPTER VII.
TRANSYLVANIA. — HISTORY AND POLITICS.
Transylvania. — Its Population. — Settlement of the Szeklers, —
of the Magyars, — of the Saxons, — under Woiwodes. — Zapolya.
— Native Princes. — Bethlen G£bor. — Aristocratic Demo-
cracy. — Union with Austria. — Diploma Leopoldinum. —
Confirmed by Maria Theresa. — Actual Form of Government.
— Constitution infringed. — Opposition. — Baron Wesselenyi. —
County Meetings. — Grievances. — General Vlasits. — Diet of
1834. — Archduke Ferdinand. — History of the Diet. — Violent
Dissolution. — Moral Opposition.
A STRANGE little country is this Transylvania!
Very likely the reader never heard its name before,
and yet some hundred years ago it was in close
alliance with England; and, long before religious
liberty, annual parliaments, payment of members,
and the election of magistrates were dreamed of,
amongst us, they were granted to Transylvania, by
a solemn charter of their Prince, the Emperor of
Austria. Here is this country on the very limits
of European civilization, yet possessing institutions
and rights, for which the most civilized have not
been thought sufficiently advanced.
The distinctions and differences among the popu-
182 TRANSYLVANIA.
lation of Hungary have offered us a singular spec-
tacle enough, but the Transylvanians far outpass
them in these matters, as they vary among them-
selves, not only in language, race, and religion, but
in civil laws and political institutions. The Mag-
yar, the Szekler, the Saxon, and the Wallack, have
all their rights, but differing most materially in
nature and extent from each other. The whole
population of the country does not amount to more
than two millions,* yet they have among them
four established religions, — besides several others
tolerated, — at least four languages, and I know not
how many different national customs, prejudices,
and modes of feeling.
It is not my intention to enter upon these
matters at any length. Suffice it to say, that
there are three nations, the Magyar, the Szekler,
and the Saxon, which have each a part in the
government of the country. They inhabit differ-
ent districts ; the Magyars, the whole west and
centre ; the Szeklers, the east and north ; and
the Saxons, the greater part of the south ; and
* The best statistical authority on which I can lay my hand is
a small geography of Transylvania, by Lebrecht, published as far
back as 1804. The whole population is estimated at 1,458,559
(without the clergy); of these, 729,316 are Wallacks; about
358,596 Magyars; about 123,085 Szeklers; 181,790 Saxons;
while of Gipsies, Jews, Greeks, Armenians, and Bulgarians, there
are about 65,772. In the " Transylvania" published in 1833,
it is conjectured to have risen to 2,034,375, including the
Transylvanian military Borderers.
TRANSYLVANIAN HISTORY. 183
with these are mixed up a number of Wallacks,
Gipsies, Jews, Armenians, &c. In order to give
the English reader some idea of this country, and of
its present state, I believe it will be best to dedicate
a page or two to its previous history.
When the Romans finally retired from Dacia,
and Aurelian offered as many of the inhabitants as
chose to accept it, a refuge in Mresia, which he
named his Dacia,* the country was left defence-
less, and open to the incursions of those barbarous
hordes which in turn cursed Europe with their de-
vastating presence. The greater part of these seem
to have passed and repassed Transylvania, without
either effecting the total destruction of the Dacians,
or being able to establish themselves in the country.
Of one of them, however, a considerable number —
whether cut off from the principal body of the
enemy, or separated by some quarrel among them-
selves, or stationed to retain a command of the
mountain-passes, and so facilitate a return, is un-
known — were left behind the rest ; and there their
descendants remain to the present day. These
are the Szeklers.
From which of these savage nations the Szeklers,
or Siculi, are derived, is one of those historical
puzzles in which the learned of Hungary, are fond
of losing themselves. Attila and his Huns, having
gained the widest renown, if not the best, Szekler
* The Wallacks, still found in some parts of Bulgaria, are
probably the descendants of those who followed Aurelian.
184 INCURSION OF THE MAGYARS.
antiquaries generally fix on them as their fore-
fathers. But, be that as it may, the Magyars
found them where they now are, on their entering
the country in the tenth century ; and as they were
evidently of the same family — for their language,
features, character, all declare them Magyars, —
they were received into favour, and allowed to re-
tain free possession of their lands, on condition of
guarding the frontier.
The Magyars made themselves masters of Dacia
and Pannonia as early as the beginning of the
tenth century, and from that time till 1526, Tran-
sylvania was little more than a part of Hungary,
though it must be confessed a very unruly part. A
certain degree of independence is still maintained.
It was governed by a Woiwode appointed by the
King of Hungary, who seems to have held Diets
to consult with the nobles on the affairs of the
country. These meetings were sometimes even pre-
sided over by the Kings of Hungary themselves.
During the greater part of this period, Transylvania
was rarely without suffering the evils of domestic
or foreign warfare, and so terribly was the popula-
tion diminished, that whole tracts of country lay
waste for want of cultivators. To supply this defi-
ciency, foreign colonists were invited to re-people
the wasted districts. As early as the middle of
the twelfth century, a colony of Germans, from
the Rhine country, were tempted by the offer of
a fertile soil, and by a promise of the enjoyment
SEPARATION FROM HUN7GARY. 185
of their own customs and religion, as well as of
certain other privileges, to settle in the nearly de-
serted Transylvania. It is to this colony the present
Saxons owe their origin.
It was not till the battle of Mohacs had reduced
the power of Hungary to so low an ebb, that she
accepted an Austrian Emperor for her king, and
till she so far forgot her ancient traditions, as
eventually to establish the succession hereditary
in that family, that Transylvania, under Zapolya,
threw off her dependence on Hungary, and pro-
claimed herself an independent state. Zapolya's
views were not confined to Transylvania; his ob-
ject was the crown of Hungary, and it is certain
that his schemes during the weak reign of Lud-
wig II. constantly tended to that object, arid it is
even suspected that his absence from Mohacs was
caused by the same ambitious motive. Be that as
it may, although actually crowned at Stuhlweissen-
burg, and although supported by a large party, he
was unable to establish himself on the throne, and
he was finally reduced to the principality of Tran-
sylvania, which he may be said to have founded.
Transylvania achieved her independence, if such
it can be called, under bad auspices, for Zapolya
submitted to the degradation of paying a tribute
to the Porte, as the condition on which he should
receive aid against the arms of Austria. For more
than a century and a half, Transylvania continued
in this state of partial independence, sometimes
18G TRANSYLVANIA UNDER PRINCES.
paying tribute to the Porte, sometimes seeking
the support of Austria, but always throwing off
her allegiance, both to one and the other, the mo-
ment her own strength or rather their weakness,
afforded her the slightest chance of doing so with
impunity. During this period, the country was
governed by native princes, generally chosen by
the Diet, but rarely without the intervention of
a Turkish Pasha, or an Austrian ambassador, and,
sometimes, they were nominated by one of these
powers without even the form of an election.
Short as was the time, Transylvanian historians
enumerate with exultation, no less than twenty-
four possessors of the Crown, as if the number of
princes increased the brilliancy of the epoch. Of
these, one reigned only a single day, others not
more than a year ; and it often happened that two
reigned at the same time, the one acknowledging
himself a vassal of Austria, the other a tributary
of the Porte. Of all these princes, but few have
either acquired or deserved a European reputa-
tion. Bethlen Gabor, who presided over the des-
tinies of Transylvania, nearly at the same period
as Cromwell over those of England, is the most
striking exception ; like Cromwell, he was a staunch
adherent to the doctrines of Calvin, a successful
general, and a man of most determined resolution
and untiring energy. As a sign of the times, rather
than as a characteristic of the man, it may be men-
tioned that Bethlen composed psalms which are
BETHLEN GABOR. 187
still sung in the Reformed churches, and that he
read the bible through twenty times. Two of
Bethlen's most constant objects were the banishment
of the Jesuits from Transylvania, and the securing
the rights of the Protestants in Hungary ; but to
accomplish the first, he did not hesitate to perse-
cute to the death, and the second seems ^o have
been rather a cloak to ambition than the object
in which that ambition centred. The part which
Bethlen took in the Thirty Years' War, gave a
European importance to Transylvania, such as it
never before nor since that time has enjoyed. For
many years Bethlen's favourite project was the
restoration of the kingdom of Dacia, including
Transylvania and Hungary east of the Theiss, in
favour of himself, and the only reason that can be
assigned for his having abandoned this object was,
the failure of heirs to inherit his power and glory.
He died childless. The engagements of Bethlen
with the chiefs of the Thirty Years' War, the faith-
lessness of the Jesuit ministers of the Austrian
court, and the discontent of the Protestants of
Hungary, together with his own ambition, made the
life of this prince a constant series of intrigues and
wars. That his character should come out quite
clear from such a trial is hardly to be expected ;
indeed, in the intricate mazes of policy, there seems
to have been few paths, however tortuous, which he
did not tread; yet it is impossible not to admire
the greatness of his designs, the fertility of his
188 CIVIL WARS.
resources, his diplomatic skill, and the noble prin-
ciple of religious liberty, for which he professed
to struggle.
What the strength and cunning of a Bethlen
Gabor was unable to hold in peace and security,
the comparative feebleness of his successors ren-
dered a, perpetual object of contest. For a long
series of years, Transylvania was engaged in wars,
half political, half religious, in which neither the
bigotry of the mass was rendered respectable by its
sincerity, nor the restless turbulence of the chiefs
by their faith or disinterestedness. The Protestants
of the mountains of Transylvania, and the half
nomad population of the plains of Hungary, were
ever ready to engage in expeditions, where their
faith was to be defended, and plunder to be gained.
Nor were adventurous leaders wanting ; who, if
they did not gain freedom from the struggle, rarely
failed to increase their patrimony by obtaining rich
grants of lands ere their zeal could be cooled. As
the first battle of Mohacs may be said to have given
rise to this state, so the second battle of Mohacs
may be considered to have put an end to it.
It has often astonished me to hear Transylva-
nians speak of the period during which they were
ruled by native princes, as the golden age of their
history, the epoch of national glory, the time to
which their national songs and legends all relate.
Is it that national independence has such charms
for a people, that civil war, with all its horrors,
ORIGIN OF INSTITUTIONS. 189
foreign invasion, with all its suite of crimes, can be
forgotten under the influence of its magic name ?
It must be so ; and yet are there men who dare to
mock such sentiments, and who dispose of nations
with as little regard to their feelings as if they
were flocks of sheep.
Perhaps, too, it may be that this period was the
one most fruitful in the establishment of free
institutions, of which the benefits are still felt. If
the weakness of Transylvanian princes gave a vast
weight to the demands of the aristocracy, their
need of support during such long wars, induced
them to extend the privileges of that aristocracy
to so great a number as to render it almost a
democracy. It is to this circumstance we must
attribute the character of freedom which distin-
guishes the institutions of Transylvania. * It was
no longer a privileged few demanding power to
restrain the suffering many. The aristocracy be-
came a people, demanding liberty for all, except the
conquered part of the nation. The establishment of
equal rights for four denominations, at a time when
all the rest of Europe was persecuting for religion's
sake, was an act so far above the paltry spirit of
* Transylvania can scarely be considered an aristocracy any
more than America can. The native Indians and negroes of
America — the free negroes of the north, I mean, for Transyl-
vania knows nothing so degrading as absolute slavery — occupy
the" place of the gipsies and Wallacks of Transylvania ; the
rest of the inhabitants of both countries enjoying nearly equal
rights.
190 TRANSYLVANIA UNDER AUSTRIA.
oligarchic legislation, that we can account for it
in no other way than by reference to that great
extension of political rights enjoyed by the Transyl-
vanians, and which was in a great measure achieved
under their native princes.
Another circumstance which has made the Tran-
sylvanians look back to the government of their
native princes with affection and regret, is the
frightful persecutions to which, in the earlier times
of their subjection, they were exposed at the hands
of foreign masters, and in later days, the violence
with which their constitutional rights have been
trampled under foot. The names of Basta, Caraffa,
and Heister, generals of Austria, to whom the task
of oppressing Transylvania was in turn committed,
are never mentioned without a shudder, even to the
present time. The peasant still tells his children
of the sad days when Basta, after having taken
all their cattle, harnessed their forefathers to his
waggons, and thus supplied his army with forage
and transport.*
Without attempting to trace the constitutional
history of Transylvania step by step, through its
various phases of developement, it may be worth
while to pause a moment, and examine its great
foundation-stone, the celebrated Diploma Leopoldi-
num, as it not only contains the chief elements of
the form of government which has been in opera-
* A kind of wheelbarrow was introduced for that purpose by
Basta, and they are still called Basta szeker, or Basta's carriages.
TRANSYLVANIA UNDER PRINCES. 191
tion from the day on which it was granted to the
present, but may serve also to give us some notion
of the progress made by the nation previous to the
period when it was obtained. The want of good
historians of Transylvania, — at least in the German
language, and I believe also in the Hungarian, — the
disturbed and unsettled character of the period
itself, and the fact that the institutions were then
rather forming than formed, must be our excuse for
not entering more fully into the political condition
of the country, previous to the date of the Dip-
loma. It is certain, however, that the princes
were elected,* but the form of election was exceed-
ingly indeterminate, and the supreme power was
more frequently obtained by force of arms than by
a majority of votes. The Diets were held annually
under some princes, nearly dispensed with by others.
The members were in part elected, in part nomi-
nated, and in part, I suspect, even hereditary.
In judging of the state of legislation previous to
the Diploma Leopoldinum, it must not be forgotten
that Austria obtained the election of the Emperor,
as Prince of Transylvania, chiefly through the in-
* I have been astonished to hear really sensible men refer to
the time when they elected to, — that is quarrelled for, fought for,
intrigued for, bribed for, betrayed for,— the throne as a period of
glory, and the loss of that privilege as the greatest misfortune.
I, on the contrary, believe sincerely that the greatest — some might
say the only — advantage Hungary and Transylvania have received
from their connexion with Austria, is the loss of this right, and
the establishment of an hereditary succession to the crown.
192 DIPLOMA LEOPOLDINUM.
fluence of treachery on the part of one or two
Transylvanians, seconded by the weakness of the
aged Prince Apaffi, and by the presence of a large
army under Caraffa, and that the Diploma was,
therefore, little more than a compromise, forced on
the country, between the absolute principle of the
Austrian Government, and the almost republican
forms then in use in Transylvania.
The first article of the Diploma gives an assur-
ance of equal rights to the four religions, — viz., the
Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, and Unitarian, and
the permission to build new churches wherever their
numbers may require them.
The second secures to each religion, all the lands,
tithes, benefices, foundations, churches, schools, &c.,
then actually possessed by them, although they may
have belonged formerly to the Catholics.
The third insures the Transylvanians the enjoy-
ment of their civil privileges, according to the esta-
blished laws of Hungary, while by the Saxons their
own municipal organization is to be retained.
By the fourth it is promised that nothing shall
be changed in the form of government, in the
appointment of the Privy Council, in the constitu-
tion of the Diet, the manner of voting, or the admi-
nistration of justice, except the right of appeal to
the Crown.
The fifth excludes foreigners from the possession
of offices.
By the sixth it is declared that property re-
DIPLOMA LEOPOLDINUM. 193
verting to the Crown, by the extinction of families,
shall be bestowed on other deserving persons, and
that Transylvanians possessing property in Hungary
shall enjoy it with the same rights as Hunga-
rians.
By the seventh it is stipulated that the President
of the Privy Council, the Commander-in-chief of
the Transylvanian Militia, the Chancellor, the mem-
bers of the Privy Council, the Prothonotaries, and
other high dignitaries, must be natives chosen by
the Diet, although requiring the royal assent to their
election.
By the eighth it is provided that in the Privy
Council a fourth of the members shall be Catholics,
as likewise in the supreme courts of justice.
By the ninth an annual Diet is guaranteed, the
dissolution to depend on the royal will.
It is stipulated by the tenth that the Governor
shall reside in the country, and that he, as well as
the Privy Council and the members of the court
of justice, shall be paid by the Crown.
It is agreed by the eleventh that in peace the
country shall pay an annual tribute of fifty thou-
sand thalers; in time of war, against Hungary
and Transylvania, four hundred thousand florins,
including supplies delivered in kind. The assess-
ment of this sum to be left to the Diet. All other
charges are to be borne by the Crown out of the
Kammeral revenues derived from the Fiscal estates,
salt-tax, metal tax, among the Saxons the cus-
VOL. n. o
194 DIPLOMA LEOPOLDINUM.
toms' tenth, and in the Hungarian counties the tithe
rent.*
By the twelfth the free Szeklers are to remain
tax free, but bound to do military service.
The thirteenth provides that the taxes, duties,
and customs shall not be increased beyond what
they had previously been.
By the fourteenth the tithes are to be rented by
the land owners, but the fiscus is to receive the
arenda canon or composition.
By the fifteenth the country is required to main-
tain troops for its occupation and protection under
the command of an Austrian general ; but he is
not to mix in civil affairs, and must maintain a
good understanding with the Governor, the Diet,
and the Privy Council, in matters of war.
By the sixteenth the people are to be relieved
from the burden of supporting and lodging travel-
lers, by the establishment of posts and inns.
Although the Austrian power was long rendered
uncertain by a series of civil wars, in which Tran-
* This tithe-rent arises from the secularization of all the church
property under one of the princes, — I think the Unitarian Zapolya
Zsigmund. Previous to that time the nobles had paid tithe to
the church, they were now to pay it to the fiscus. As the collec-
tion in kind more than swallowed up the profits of the tax, it
was generally let, or compounded for, by a fixed sum of money,
paid by the nobles, who had then the right to collect the tithe
from their own peasants. This composition is paid to the present
\ ^ay. — A great part of the TransylvaniaiL clergy of^the established
religions are pai^by the government. The Greek church alone,
entirely maintains its. own.
fat
topre&e4<
TRANSYLVANIA UNDER AUSTRIA. 195
sylvania took a leading part, it was finally esta-
blished on a firm basis, and, as the Austrian party
grew stronger, the more liberal articles of the di-
ploma were gradually invaded, but the monarchs,
nevertheless, continued to swear to their observance,
and no legal modification was ever made in its pro-
visions. Maria Theresa imitated her predecessors,
and adopted the diploma in all its extent, requiring
only that the Diet, in return, should formally re-
nounce the right of electing the Prince, and accept
the Pragmatic Sanction establishing the succession
in her, and her descendants. Here, as in Hungary,
during the latter years of Maria Theresa's reign,
and during the whole of Joseph's, the constitution
was in abeyance, nor, during the very few occasions
on which the Diet was called together, towards the
end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the
nineteenth centuries, did any important change
take place. The long wars in which Austria be-
came engaged soon after, furnished an excuse for
ruling without a Diet, and so matters remained till
1830.
The actual form of government then, as settled
by the Diploma Leopoldinum, and according to
law, — if not always according to fact, — existing at
the present time, is nearly as follows : —
A Governor, aided by a Privy Council, Secre-
taries, and others, corresponding with the Transyl-
vanian chancery at Vienna, — in other words, acting
under the direction of an Austrian minister, — con-
o 2
196 FORM OF GOVERNMENT.
stitute the executive, whilst the legislative is formed
by a Diet, to be held every year. The appointment
of the executive is to be vested jointly in the Diet
and the Crown.* For every office the Diet is to
candidate or nominate three individuals from each
of the received religions, that is twelve persons for
each office, from among whom the Crown appoints
one.
The Diet itself forms only one body, though it
is composed of various elements. Every county and
free town sends its members, — the Magyars about
forty-six, the Szeklers eighteen, and the Saxons
eighteen also ; the members of the towns in Tran-
sylvania have the same rights as those of the coun-
ties ; the Catholic church sends two members re-
presentatives of abbeys. The Catholic and united
Greek Bishops claim each a seat also. Besides
these, there are Regalists, as they are called (a sort
of Peers), who sit and vote with the others, but
who are not endowed with any other power or title
in consequence. Some of these are nominated by
the Crown for life, others have seats in virtue of
their office, as the Lords Lieutenant, Privy Coun-
sellors, and Secretaries. The number of Regalists
is said to have been limited to eighty-nine by Maria
Theresa, but this regulation has been grossly infring-
ed, the present number exceeding two hundred.
* This is a disputed point which I do not pretend to decide,
but merely state how it actually takes place ; whether right or
wrong, I leave others to determine.
RIGHTS INFRINGED. 197
Besides the candidation of the executive, the
duties of the Diet may be said to consist, in the
making and altering of laws for the internal govern-
ment of the country, the voting supplies of troops,
the levying, but not voting, the contribution, and
the conferring the Indigenat* or right of citizenship
upon strangers.
The Municipal Government of the counties and
towns is nearly the same as that of Hungary, except
among the Saxons, of whose form of local govern-
ment we shall speak further hereafter.
From the little we have said, it is easy to see how
grossly the institutions of Transylvania have been
violated; and one far better able to judge than
we can possibly be, Baron Kemeny Denes, has
publicly declared, " that of the whole Diploma
Leopoldinum but one article has been faithfully
observed, and that is the one stipulating that the
general commanding the troops should be a Ger-
man!"
The length of time which elapsed without the
assembling of the States, and the consequent illegal
appointment of all the chief officers; the neglect
to call the county-meetings, and the want of legal
* Although the king can make any Hungarian peasant noble,
he cannot confer on a foreigner, not even on an Austrian subject,
the rights of Hungarian nobility ; this power, both in Hungary
and Transylvania, the Diet reserves to itself. The Indigenat tax
— in Hungary two thousand, and in Transylvania one thousand
ducats — is often remitted as a compliment to the person on whom
the right of citizenship is conferred.
198 RIGHTS INFRINGED.
sanction to all the municipal proceedings, were fast
destroying in the minds of the people all confidence
in the faith of the Government, all trust in its officers,
and almost all respect for the laws they administered.
A corrupt bureaucracy, whose interest it was to
maintain this order, or rather disorder, of things,
because by its illegality alone could its members
exist, was fast demoralizing the country by an ex-
hibition of the basest subserviency to power, and of
the most open contempt for every principle of
honour and honesty.
Fortunately the very excess of its viciousness
was the cause of saving the country. A number
of well-meaning men, who had consented to aid
Joseph in his constitutional violence, because they
saw it associated with so much that was enlightened
and good, shrunk with horror from a system which
alike violated the rights of the nation, and the
rights of man. The staunch Conservative party,
which had never been juggled out of its consistency
by any pretence of amelioration, and which loved
old things because they were old, still hated the
innovators, however they might otherwise have
liked their principles; and besides these, a new
party had arisen far more powerful than all the
others. The progress made in the West of Europe,
during the last quarter of a century, in the esta-
blishment of rational freedom, was not without its
effect even in this distant part of the globe. In
vain the youth of Transylvania were forbidden to
PARTIES. 199
exercise their ancient privilege of visiting foreign
universities; in vain the strictest censorship en-
deavoured to suppress and mutilate the truth ;
liberal facts, and liberal principles found their way
into the country, and a Liberal party was gradually
formed. By this party the ancient institutions
were all the more closely cherished, because they
were free; nor were there wanting among them
those who felt that stronger guarantees were re-
quired for the observance of these institutions, and
above all, that it was necessary to extend the pri-
vileges, now exclusively enjoyed by the nobles, to
the other classes of society. The greater portion
of this party, however, have no higher wish than to
return to the strict letter of the constitution, as
enjoyed by their ancestors, and sworn to by the
Emperor, and they claim therefore for themselves
the title of conservatives, and denounce their ad-
versaries as destructives.
The events of 1830, which shook all Europe to
its basis, gave a voice, in Transylvania, to those
feelings of discontent which had been long enter-
tained in secret, and the country, as with one accord,
demanded that the county-meetings should be sum-
moned, and a Diet called together.
A really strong popular feeling rarely wants a
good leader to direct its expression ; in Transylvania
such a leader was found in Baron Wesselenyi
Miklos. In addition to the advantages of rank
and fortune, Wesselenyi possesses so much energy
200 COUNTY-MEETINGS.
and courage, so much truth and sincerity, and
withal an eloquence so powerful, that it is not
astonishing he was soon acknowledged as the head
of the party.
The first point conceded by Government was
the county-meetings, and these were immediately
taken advantage of to give expression to public
opinion. In the absence of a free press, these
meetings were of the greatest importance ; they
operated as safety valves, which, while they may
have given vent to some useless vapour, served to
inform the observer under how great a pressure the
machine was labouring.
Wessele*nyi, and a party of his friends, purchased
small portions of land in every county, that they
might have the right of attending, and of speaking
at every public meeting. They had no lack of
matter for the exercise of their oratory ; the uncon-
stitutional procedure of withholding the Diet, the
consequent illegal appointment of the great officers,
and the neglect of municipal privileges, were
all subjects for eloquent declamation. Then, too,
since the last Diet, no less than twenty thou-
sand soldiers had been raised in Transylvania with-
out the consent of the nation. The taxes, —
that subject which touches the most indifferent,
and in which some men believe the whole science
of politics to consist, — were open enough to
animadversion; for from the 300,000 florins sti-
pulated in the Diploma, they had been arbitrarily
GRIEVANCES. 201
raised to upwards of a million and a half.* The
salt tax too, which the Government had been
allowed to increase during the war, still continued
at the war rate after fifteen years of peace. The
export and import duties, which the Diploma ex-
pressly declared should not be altered, had been
raised so high as to be prohibitory.
The grievances of the Protestants were deep, and*
from their numbers and intelligence, of much im-
portance : they demanded that they should enjoy
their rights, and be admitted to places of trust and
profit equally with the Catholics ; they objected to
the forced observance of Catholic holidays, and
they protested against the injustice of forcing the
Catholics, who wished to become Protestants, to
undergo six weeks' instruction from a priest, while
the Protestant was received into the Catholic
church without the slightest difficulty being thrown
in his way.
The Szeklers were discontented that one por-
tion of their nation were obliged both to serve in
the army and to pay taxes ; and the Saxons — even
the quiet submissive Saxons — were not without
their griefs. Their municipal constitution had been
completely changed, and instead of being governed
* The exact amount of the present contribution is not known.
The mode of levying it has been completely changed ; a fixed
sum is paid by the peasant for his land per acre, and for his
cattle, sheep, &c., so much per head, without any relation to any
stipulated agreement, so that the tax goes on increasing in amount
probably every year.
202 SUCCESS OF THE LIBERALS.
by officers freely elected by the people, they found
themselves delivered over to the tender mercies of
a self-elected bureaucracy.
These, and a host of minor abuses, which had
crept into the administration from the want of
due popular control, formed the subject-matter
of the harangues of Wesselenyi and his friends,
and they were insisted on with a degree of courage
and energy which lent force to their acknowledged
truth. The Liberals carried the day at almost every
meeting at which they presented themselves ; peti-
tions and remonstrances, more loud and more angry
as delay exhausted the patience of the petitioners,
crowded the archives of the Chancery : petitions
and remonstrances soon grew into demands, and
demands at last assumed the form of threats. Ba-
ron Wesselenyi publicly announced his intention to
allow no soldiers to be levied on his estates till a
Diet had been granted. Not only individuals, but
several counties follow his example.
In the mean time Baron Josika, the Court nomi-
nated governor, overlooking the legal and constitu-
tional character of the opposition, saw nothing but
revolution in these demonstrations, and he is said
to have written the most exaggerated reports of
their danger to Vienna, and to have demanded a
supply of troops to repress them.
So violent a measure seems to have startled even
the Court itself, and though troops were sent, they
sent with them a commissioner, General Vlasits,
GENERAL VLASITS. 203
•with power to inquire into the state of the country,
and to apply the necessary remedies to the existing
evils. On a certain day the county-meetings were
assembled in every part of Transylvania, and an
edict of the Crown was published, denouncing the
decision of the former meetings, as illegal and
null, and promising them a Diet and the reform
of abuses, on condition of their retracting the
offensive resolutions.
Although several of the counties refused to adopt
this suggestion and stultify their former acts, Gen-
eral Vlasits reported the country to be in perfect
tranquillity, and the reports of the revolution, which
he had been sent down to quell, without a shadow
of foundation. The conduct of Vlasits though en-
trusted with so delicate a mission, secured for him
even the respect and esteem of those most strongly
opposed to him ; but by the Court, his efforts were
not favourably regarded, and he was shortly after-
wards recalled.
The moment, however, was now come when it
was thought no longer safe to resist the popular
wish. The Court knew full well that Wessele'nyi*
* A short time previous to this, when Wesselenyi was attend-
ing a levee of the Emperor at Presburg, the sovereign, in making
his round of the circle, stopped opposite our Transylvanian, already
distinguished as a Liberal leader, and, shaking his head very omi-
nously, addressed him, " Take care, Baron Wesselenyi, take care
what you are about ! recollect that many of your family have been
unfortunate !" — (His father was confined for seven years in the
Kuffstein.) " Unfortunate, your majesty, they have been, but ever
204 THE DIET SUMMONED.
was a man to keep his word, the counties too were
firm in supporting him, and, under such circum-
stances, a collision, in which the nobles would ap-
pear as the protectors of the peasantry, was to be
avoided at any price. A Diet was granted.
In 1834 then, the Transylvanian Diet was again
called together, after an interval of twenty-three
years.
The election returns left no doubt as to the state
of opinion in the country, even if any could have
been entertained before. The members of both
towns and counties were, with few exceptions,
liberal. The Regalists, by office, as well as the
Regalists by royal appointment, were also strongly
tinctured with the same opinions ; and, consequently,
the governor with his little band of faithful officials,
saw before him nothing but the melancholy pro-
spect of a certain defeat.
It is necessary that the Diet should be opened
by a royal commissioner; and the person chosen
for this purpose was the Arch-duke Ferdinand
d'Este, the brother of the Duke of Modena, and a
near relation of the Emperor. The influence which
undeserving of their misfortunes also ! " was Wesselenyi's bold and
honest answer. It is only those who know the habitual stiffness
and decorum of an Austrian court that can conceive the consterna-
tion into which the whole crowd was thrown by this unexpected
boldness. Explanations were offered to Wesselenyi to soften down
the harshness of the royal reproof, in hopes of bringing him to beg
pardon ; but he could not apologise for having defended the honour
of his family, even when attacked by his sovereign.
THE ARCH-DUKE FERDINAND. 205
the high rank of the commissioner might naturally
be expected to exercise on the nobility, was pro-
bably calculated upon as likely to strengthen the
Court party ; but, unfortunately, the well-known
sentiments of the Arch-duke in favour of ab-
solutism, and the troops which soon followed his
arrival gave his appearance among them so much
the air of an attempt to overpower and control
the freedom of their discussions, that it only in-
creased the bitterness of feeling and party spirit
by which the country was divided.
Under such auspices the Diet opened.
The length of time that had elapsed since the
last Diet had, among other consequences, rendered
doubtful many of the rights and privileges of the
chamber. At the very outset, the Government
disputed the right of the chamber to elect its own
president, while the chamber refused to admit the
nominee of the Government.
This was but the beginning of a series of angry
disputes, in which almost every constitutional ques-
tion, in season or out of season, was dragged into
the discussions ; for it was another evil of the long
recess, that it had disaccustomed the leading mem-
bers to those habits of parliamentary debate, and
those forms of parliamentary business, on which
the practical utility of a parliament so much de-
pends. One of the most interesting of these ques-
tions was, the publication of the debates, which
the Arch-duke positively forbade, but which Wes-
206 OPPOSITION.
selenyi, by means of a lithographic press, still found
means of carrying on. Another, perhaps, still more
important question was, the manner in which the
election of officers should take place, — whether
each of the twelve candidates should be chosen by
an absolute majority or not — the Liberals contend-
ing for the absolute majority, by which alone they
could exert some influence over the nomination of
the Crown. At this period of the affair, the Diet
sent a deputation of its members to wait upon the
Emperor, to disabuse him of the falsehoods with
which they believed his ministers and their spies
had poisoned his ear against his faithful Transyl-
vanians, and to prove to him that their objects, so
far from revolutionary, all tended to the preservation
only of their ancient rights and immunities.
In the mean time, evil passions had been called
into play, which rendered greater every day the
separation between the two parties. Personal ani-
mosity and private pique, ambitious vanity and
wounded dignity, all conspired in turns, to em-
bitter the debates. The conduct of Wessel^nyi
himself was anything but conciliatory. With prin-
ciples and views too far advanced, probably, both
for the Government he wished to control, and the
party he wished to lead, he grew only more un-
compromising in their support, the more sharply
they were attacked. It was in vain that Professor
Szasz, that Count Bethlen Janos, and others of the
Liberal party, endeavoured to moderate the de-
POPULAR EXCITEMENT. 207
mands of the ultras, or the mistrust and fears of
the Absolutists. It was in vain, the more cautious
inveighed against the danger of playing the lion's
part with only the fox's strength ; Wesselenyi was
not a man to yield, where he believed himself right,
and he steadily refused to sacrifice a single principle
on the plea of expediency.
The political fever was now spreading far and
wide, and the Arch-duke and the administration
became so unpopular, that the waverers, the men of
no opinion, threw themselves into the ranks of the
opposition. The colleges, with all the enthusiasm
of youth, added their voices to Wesselenyi's de-
mand for liberty and justice. From the moun-
tains of the hardy - Szeklers to the quiet vil-
lages of the cautious Saxons, the cry for reform
of abuses grew louder and louder. At such a mo-
ment, a bold hand, a comprehensive mind, and an
honest heart would at once have grappled with
the difficulties, offered a frank reform of abuses,
and gone in advance even of the expectations
of the people in correcting acknowledged evils.
In an instant the whole country would have been
at the foot of the throne. No one would have
ventured to oppose so fair a promise of good,
and Transylvania would have overlooked a thou-
sand past faults in the anticipation of a happy
future.
Such, unfortunately, was not the course pursued.
On the 24th of May, Wessele'riyi had presented to
208 DISSOLUTION OF THE DIET.
the chamber his lithographic press, had claimed for
it the protection of the country, and had seen it
accepted with acclamations. A few hours later,
and a proclamation from the Emperor had dis-
solved the Diet, suspended the constitution, and
nominated the Arch-duke absolute governor of
the country !
A denouement so sudden and so unexpected,
produced the most extraordinary sensation. Angry
words were exchanged between the parties, and
in the excitement of the moment, a sabre is said
to have started from its scabbard ; but, fortu-
nately, the leaders restrained these ebullitions of
feeling, and the chamber separated in perfect
quiet. What was their surprise on leaving the
hall, to find the streets lined with troops, and
everything bearing the aspect of a military de-
monstration ?
Intimidation was probably the object aimed at,
for I will not for a moment suspect the Govern-
ment of having wished to provoke a movement
that they might thus dispose the more easily of
their antagonists : the loyal and honourable cha-
racter of the Arch-duke forbids such a suspicion,
even should that of some of his counsellors pro-
voke it. Intimidation was probably the sole ob-
ject, but never was a purpose more signally
defeated.
It was immediately determined, that without
any appeal to arms, the strongest moral opposi-
OFFICERS RESIGN. 209
tion should be offered to this act of constitutional
violence. With one or two exceptions only, every
man of character holding office under the Crown —
Lords-Lieutenant of counties, Privy Councillors,
Secretaries of State — at once threw up their
appointments, declaring that they could no longer
act with a Government that seemed to set all law
and justice at defiance.* This was an unexpected
blow ; the Court party had reckoned on the love of
place being stronger than the love of principle — a
few years previously it would have been so — and its
disappointed rage seemed uncontrollable. Actions
at law were commenced against the leaders of the
Liberals before judges certain to condemn them ;
injury and insult were heaped upon every member
of the party, and their security and repose were
placed entirely at the disposal of inveterate, and
often unprincipled, enemies.
These events took place in the spring of 1834 ;
ind, in the autumn of 1835, everything remained
it was placed in the first moments of distrust
and violence.
An extraordinary number of troops were still
collected in and about Klausenburg, and were
even quartered in the houses of the nobles. The
* Among these, the principal were, Privy Councillors, Baron
Kemeny Ferenz, and Szek Daniel : Lords-Lieutenant, Count
Degenfeld, Baron Banffy L£szlo, Baron B&nffy Adam, and Ugron
Istvan ; Secretaries, Count Bethlen Imre, Ugron — and some
others, besides a great number of inferior officers.
VOL. II. P
210 MORAL RESISTANCE.
Archduke Ferdinand remained apparently in mili-
tary occupation of the country, for he had no
position of authority recognised by the constitution.
All the vacant places were filled up illegally, for
no Diet had been summoned to give its list of
candidates. With a few exceptions, the officers
appointed were chosen from among the least
respected persons in the country. The few men of
honour among them declared publicly that they
were ashamed of their associates ; and, worst of all,
even the municipal constitution had been suspended,
and consequently, all the magistrates, though fairly
elected, had held their offices beyond the proper
period, and all their acts were therefore illegal.
During the whole of this time the greatest
tranquillity prevailed, — a tranquillity which con-
founded the advocates of absolutism ten times more
than would the most violent revolt. Incapable of
understanding the confidence which freemen feel in
the justice and righteousness of their cause, they
cannot estimate, and therefore cannot oppose the
moral courage which suffers in the full conviction,
that its suffering will eventually work out a remedy
for the evil.
In such a state was the political horizon of
Transylvania when we reached
A SOLITARY INN.
CHAPTER VIII.
NORTH OF TRANSYLVANIA.
Transylvanian Roads. — A Solitary Inn. — Dr£g. — Zsibo.— Horse--
breeding.— Old Transylvanian Breed. — Count Banffy's Stud. —
English Breed. — Baron Wesselenyi's Stud. — A Cross. — Babolna
Arabs. — Interesting Experiment. — R6kotzy. — Robot. — Ride
to Hadad. — The Vintage. — Transylvanian Wines. — Oak
Woods. — Scotch Farmer. —A Reformer's Trials. — State of the
Peasantry. — Urbarium. — Stewards. — Establishments of the
Nobles. — Social Anomalies. — Old Fashions — The Dinner. —
Drive to Nagy Banya. — Gipsies. — Gold Mines. — Private
Speculations. — Return.
BEFORE the winter set in, there was yet a
promise of a week or two of fine weather ; and
we were recommended to avail ourselves of it, to
visit some interesting objects in the north of the
country.
p 2
212 SOLITARY INN.
I believe my duty, as an honest chronicler of my
travels, would be to give the reader at least two
pages of tirade against the bad roads of Transyl-
vania ; for if I do not, how can I convey to him
an impression of the misery we suffered while we
were dragged over or rather through them? But
lest he should grow as tired of hearing of them as
we did of travelling on them, I will spare him the
infliction, and content myself with saying that we
now occupied three days in accomplishing what one
day suffices for in summer.
Our first halt was at a lone country inn — a sort
of caravansary in the desert — for I do not recollect
that we had seen a house for two hours before we
reached it. About an acre of ground, forming the
yard, was enclosed with a strong fence, and held
the dwelling-house, the waggon-shed, some stables,
and a well. A more solitary spot I have rarely
seen; the hills all round were covered with a
scanty pasture, the road was only a muddy track,
and there were no signs of cultivation or habitation
within a circuit of many miles.
At Drag, which we did not reach till sometime
after nightfall, we were hospitably entertained by
the Seigneur of the place ; for we were obliged to
have recourse to our letters of introduction here,
the inns being really too bad. We were shown
at Drag a large Roman statue of Jupiter, without
the head, which had been discovered some miles
off in the bed of a brook. It was of a rather coarse
ZSIBO. 213
white marble, probably obtained in the country, and
of indifferent workmanship.
One object of the route we had chosen in this
excursion, was to enable us to visit Zsibo, the seat
of Baron Wesselenyi Mi k 16s ; and we arrived there
on the second evening.
We did not expect to see the Baron himself at
Zsibo, for we knew that he was an unwilling ab-
sentee. Immediately after the stormy conclusion
of the Diet, which we have related in the last chap-
ter, Baron Wesselenyi had hastened into Hungary,
where, as we have already seen, he was actively em-
ployed in serving his country, while, in the mean-
time his enemies commenced an action against him
in Transylvania, for printing the Journal, and other
less-important charges. Attacked by a severe
illness, at Presburg, Wesselenyi was unable to
answer the summons of the Court to appear, and, in
spite of the certificates of his physicians, he was
condemned for contumacy and a warrant of arrest
issued against him should he return to Transylva-
nia. Though he still remains free, the chief object
was gained, that of driving him from the scene of
his greatest influence; for, from that day, he has
never been able to return to the country. His
establishment, however, was still kept up as before,
and his steward was there to show us over it.
Besides other branches of industry, Baron Wes-
selenyi has particularly devoted his attention to the
breed of horses. If horse-breeding is a matter of
214 TRANSYLVANIAN HORSES.
interest to the Hungarian gentry, it is almost a pas-
sion among those of Transylvania. I think Bethlen,
in his " Ansichten von Siebenbiirgen," published at
the beginning of this century, gives the names of
no less than sixty celebrated studs in this small ter-
ritory. The original, or rather the oldest breed of
Transylvania, is probably that still found in the
mountains of the Szekler Land, a small wiry horse,
capable of enduring great fatigue, and easily fed, but
deficient in size, power, and speed. These horses
bear, in many respects, a great resemblance to our
Welsh ponies. During the long occupation of the
country by the Turks, a considerable intermixture
of Arab blood took place, which, though it may
have added something to the Transylvanian horse's
speed and beauty, seems to have detracted from
his strength and hardihood.
Among a host of other evils, which the connec-
tion between Spain and Austria brought on Hun-
gary and Transylvania, one of the most permanent,
if not the most serious, was the deterioration of the
breed of horses. The Spanish horse, with consider-
able beauty, — at least to the unskilled eye, — with
extraordinary docility and a most pompous bearing,
is, nevertheless, the very worst horse in Europe.
The fashion of the Court, however, of course decided
the fashion of the country, and till the present
century the Spanish was the most esteemed blood.
In fact, it was not ill-adapted to the wants of those
times. When to be slow was to be dignified, when
COUNT BANFF Y'S STUD. 215
all grace centred in a minuet, and beauty took
refuge in powder and hoops, it was but right that
pomp should have its prancing steeds, which could
curvet a whole hour without advancing a mile ; but
in these waltzing, steaming, matter-of-fact days,
nothing less than our full bloods can keep pace
with modern restlessness, and they have accord-
ingly been introduced into Transylvania, as well as
into most other parts of Europe.
There are still, however, some old-fashioned
people who are content to move on as their fore-
fathers did, — the Court and its party more espe-
cially the bishops, are said to monopolize this
privilege in Hungary. To supply this taste some
of the old studs are still maintained. The most
jrfect is that of Count Banffy, at Bonczida, where
everything corresponds so well with the historical
character of its horses, that I cannot forbear a de-
scription of it. The whole of one side of the court-
yard of the castle is occupied by a superb stable,
ornamented with sculpture, and entered by folding
doors. The stable is composed of one vaulted hall,
with stalls on either side, and a wide walk down the
centre, the floor being boarded with oak. As we
entered, the Stall-meister, in long jack-boots, and
armed with a coach-whip, received us in due form,
and ushered us into the presence of nearly a hun-
dred horses, all with their heads turned towards us,
ornamented with ribbons, and attended by grooms
in full livery, with bouquets in their hats. After
216 ENGLISH BREED.
walking up and down this magnificent avenue list-
ening to pedigrees, and admiring the beauty of the
gallant steeds, we retired again to the court-yard
to see them brought out. Two horses at a time
were led to the door in long braided reins, and, on
a given signal from the Stall-meister's whip, off
they started, curvetting, neighing, and galloping,
till they had made the tour of the court, when, at
another signal, they came to a dead stand, at a
certain spot where they remained as quiet as lambs,
to be handled and examined from head to foot.
It was impossible to see these horses, as they
proudly stretched themselves out as if to show
their points to the greatest advantage, and deny
that they had much beauty about them ; as for
their capability to endure fatigue, I cannot speak,
but I fancy they are rarely exposed to such a trial.
What is not least important, these horses are said
to find a ready sale. A hundred pounds for a
pair, as carriage horses, is considered a high price,
even for the best of them.
Baron Wesselenyi was the first who undertook to
reform these matters, and though he began it with
only a very few English mares and one horse, —
Cato, — his ordinary stock stud now amounts to
about two hundred. We went first of all into the
paddock, where we found a promising herd of young
things of different ages, from two to five, in ex-
cellent condition, and carefully tended by keepers,
like sheep by their shepherds. Those which most
BARON WESSEL^NYI'S STUD. 217
interested us, were a cross between the English
full blood and the small Szekler mare, and an
excellent hackney it seems to have produced. The
mares were mostly powerful animals, admirably
chosen for breeding speed and strength.
On returning to the stables, we found thirty or
forty horses up, and in condition for sale or work.
There were some of them which left nothing to de-
sire. I remember particularly one, a four years' colt,
already nearly sixteen hands high, which looked
as much like a hunter as ever I saw a horse. Baron
Wessele*nyi is considered to sell his horses dear.
The prices vary from about 401. for the half-bred
Szeklers, to 250/. for thorough -bred entire horses.
The four years' old gelding, just alluded to, was
estimated at 80/. As soon as English horses be-
come a little more common in this part of the
world, I have no doubt that the best of them will
be re-exported to England, the price of breeding
and rearing being so much less here, and the de-
mand for first-rate horses so far beyond the supply
with us. The expense of keeping a horse in con-
dition in this country, for twelve months, I have
heard estimated at 10/.
There are now probably not less than twenty
studs in Transylvania, with a greater or less infusion
of English blood. It is amusing enough to find,
that there is a strong connection between breeds
of horses and opinions in politics here. A young
Liberal, the first thing on coming to his fortune,
218 BABOLNA.
clears his father's stables of the old stock, and re-
cruits anew from Zsibo : while the Absolutists ad-
here religiously to the pompous useless steeds of
their predecessors. So far does it go, that a man's
politics are known by the cut of his horse's tail.
As Baron H— - overtook a party of Liberals, re-
turning one dark night from a county-meeting, he
was hailed as a friend ; for though they said they
could not see his face, they knew by his horse's
dock that he was of the right sort.
Before I take leave of the horses, I must say a few
words here of the Government studs in Hungary,
of which Marshal Marmont has given so particular
an account. Babolna, though not so large as Mezo
Hegyes, was particularly interesting, at the time I
visited it, from a new importation of Arabs which
had just taken place. Babolna, is a complete mili-
tary establishment, under the direction of a major
of dragoons, aided by a certain number of officers,
non-commissioned officers, and privates. They farm
a large estate of more than seven thousand acres,
from which they draw their supplies of corn, straw,
and hay. The most interesting object to us was the
Arab stud, which the major had himself just brought
from the interior of Arabia. There were fourteen
mares, and nearly as many horses. It is impossible
for language to convey an idea of the beauty of
some of these creatures. They are small, rarely
exceeding fourteen hands ; but their strength and
symmetry are perfect. There was one little mare,
ARAB BREED. 219
bright bay, which caught my eye, and so com-
iletely fascinated me, that I could scarcely look at
iy of the others after. Such depth of shoulder,
ch bony fore-legs, such loins, and such quarters
d hocks, it was never my fortune to see in so
small a compass, or in such perfect proportion,
before. The major was evidently pleased at my
choice, for the bay mare was his favourite also :
the more so, perhaps, from the difficulty he had
found in getting possession of her. He had heard
of her reputation long before he reached the tribe
to which she belonged ; for, after a defeat, she had
borne her master across the sandy wastes without a
halt, an incredible distance, and actually arrived
at the encampment of the tribe, six hours before
any of the others who had commenced their flight
at the same time. To induce an Arab to part
with such a treasure was no easy matter; and
long were the negotiations and high the bribes
which enabled the major to secure this gem of the
desert for his imperial master.
In one part of the establishment, we were shown
the summer day-rooms for the breeding stud, im-
mense places, where some hundreds of mares and
foals are turned in together, the floors being co-
vered with straw above the horses' knees to protect
their feet, and the walls lined with marble troughs,
in which they receive their food. Notwithstanding
the number let loose together, it is very rarely
any accident happens ; indeed, from the constant
220 BABOLNA.
presence of man with them, nothing can exceed
the quietness of these creatures. We went among
whole herds of them, and touched them without
the least danger. The tenders always carry bread
with them, and give a bit to the horse as a reward
for good behaviour; and they consequently follow
one about, poking their noses into one's hands and
pockets with the docility of dogs. I was surprised
to hear, that in these large buildings every horse
knows his place, though it is quite undivided, and
is as tenacious of it as an old bachelor of his chim-
ney corner.
A most interesting experiment is at present un-
der trial at Babolna. Major Herbert is of opinion,
that the size and strength of a horse does not de-
pend on the race, but on the nourishment of the
individual animal. In consequence of this opinion,
and taking the Arab as the most perfect model
of a horse for form and symmetry, he is desirous
to confine his stud stock to the Arab blood, and
trusts to his system of feeding for supplying the
deficiency of size. When I saw Babolna, he had
specimens of four and five years' old horses raised
on this system ; and there was certainly a con-
siderable change in their size compared with that
of their sires. When this experiment commenced,
however, he had no Arab dams in the stud, and
the proof was therefore incomplete, for the mixed
German and Spanish race, to which the old mares
belonged, though faulty enough in other particulars,
BABOLNA. 221
is not very small. Some of the double crosses —
where the sire, for two generations, was a small
Arab — were nearly fifteen hands, and, in other
respects, good in form, and leaning much to the
Arab in appearance. The system of feeding is
nearly the same as that pursued with our racing
stock, — to let them nibble oats as soon as they
can ; and for the first three or four years, instead
of starving them on a bad pasture, to give them
the best of everything.
That the experiment will succeed to a certain
extent, is, I think, evident, both from what I saw,
and from the history of improvements introduced
into the breeds of other animals, which have been
generally produced by judicious selection and high
feeding ; but whether the expanded Arab will retain
the same symmetry of form, the same relative pro-
portion of bone and body, and, above all, the same
hardihood and endurance which distinguish the de-
sert stock, appears very doubtful. The question is
— can the qualities of the English hunter be fed
into the Arab form ? Nowhere can the experiment
be so perfectly and satisfactorily settled as in one
of these institutions, for the amount of food is fixed
and weighed, the number on which the experiment
is tried renders it independent of exceptions, and,
above all, the character and interests of the gentle-
men by whom it is conducted, place them above all
suspicion of false play. For the present, however,
it must be considered under trial. No English
222
ZSIBO.
sportsman should pass through Hungary without
visiting Babolna. The politeness with which Major
Herbert showed us the whole establishment, though
we presented ourselves entirely as strangers, and
without introduction, requires our special thanks.
The destination of the horses raised in the royal
studs, is, to improve the breed in the different
districts of the Austrian empire, among which they
are distributed. If any remain above the number
required for this purpose they are sold to officers
for chargers, or even sent to the remount of the
regiments.
But to return to Zsibo. Zsibo is one of the
very few houses I have yet seen in this part of the
world which is really well situated. It occupies a
FRANZ RAKOTZY II. 223
large platform, at a considerable height above the
village, and is backed by still higher hills, and sur-
rounded by woods which shelter it from the north.
Below it extends, on either side, the valley of the
Szamos, and opposite a conical mountain rears its
head, the scene of one of the most interesting
events in Transylvanian history. It was on this
mountain that Franz Rakotzy, II. the last native
prince of Transylvania, took his stand, and wit-
nessed the final defeat of his forces by the troops
of Austria.
Weak and vacillating as Rakotzy was, it is im-
possible to read his adventurous history without
interest, or to reflect on his fall, when deserted by
his former friends and adherents, without pity.
"Pro patria et libertate" was a noble inscription
to place upon his coinage — but it was sad to think
that the coin itself was base : religious freedom was
an object well worth contending for — but it was
difficult for one brought up a Jesuit to maintain it
consistently ; mildness and justice were good quali-
ties in a ruler, — but weakness and indecision were
destructive to the general. After years of civil war,
in which Rakotzy sometimes seemed on the point
of ascending the throne of Hungary, sometimes
was threathened with annihilation by the quarrels
amongst his own friends, he at last ended his
troubled life a fugitive in Turkey.
As we were passing from one part of the es-
tablishment of Zsibo to another, we crossed a
224 ROBOT.
beautiful wood on the banks of the river, which is
fenced in on all sides to protect the pheasants, with
which it literally swarms, from the wolves and foxes.
The proud birds were crowing from their perches on
every side of us. The pheasant is yet a stranger in
Hungary, and can only be kept in woods appropri-
ated to the purpose of rearing them, where they
are carefully fed, and in winter driven under cover,
and shut up till the next spring.
On our return by the farm-yard, we observed a
very merry group of children and women occupied
— if such lazy work can be called occupation — in
pulling off the outer skins of the maize. A man
stood over them to direct them and to enforce their
attention — but what can one man do against the
mischief and fun of fifty women and children ? I
was very much surprised to hear that these merry
workers were sent as substitutes for husbands and
fathers in the performances of a day's Robot. If a
landlord gets but one hundred days' work such as
this, for a year's rent for a farm of thirty acres, it
is not very highly paid. I am sure ten of ours
would be of more wrorth. The steward seemed to
think this, however, but a very slight misfortune
compared with others his master had to suffer :
" Probably," he observed, " before the winter is
over, these people will have eaten all this corn
which they are now so lazily dressing. The harvest
has been a scarce one here, and when that is the
case, the peasants come on their landlords for sup-
RIDE TO HADAU. 225
port, as if they had a right to it. It has frequently
happened that the Baron has not been able to sell
one grain of corn for a whole season, every particle
of it having been required to keep his own tenantry
alive, and sometimes he has been obliged to buy
more in addition." This is a pretty good answer
to the stupid accusation of ill treating his peasantry,
which had been raised against Baron Wesselenyi ;
an answer unneeded, however, for their prosperous
and happy state, superior to almost any in the
country, and their devoted affection to their master,
rendered the accusation itself perfectly ridiculous.
One of these very peasants walked all the way from
Zsibo to Vienna, to present a petition to the Em-
peror from some hundred of his fellows, that their
lord and benefactor might be restored to them.
We had spent so much time, that the day
was well nigh past ere we had finished our drive
round Zsibo, and we had still a considerable jour-
ney before us. The steward, however, had sent the
carriage forward early in the morning, and now
offered us some of the half-bred Szeklers, that we
might try if their deeds deserved the praises we
had bestowed on their appearance. We got over
to Hadad, our next station, in little more than two
hours, through a woody and hilly country, often
presenting views of the most perfect park-like
scenery it is possible to fancy. What is the exact
distance I know not, but we certainly put our little
horses on their mettle, and arrived considerably
VOL. n. Q
226 HADAD.
before the carriage which had started in the morn-
ing. One of them, a small mare, with two crosses
of English blood, was the most extraordinary trotter
of her height I ever saw. She was sold soon after
for about 60/. There never was a country more
beautifully laid out for riding over than Transyl-
vania ; without high mountains or hard roads, it
is just sufficiently hilly to vary the surface, and
twenty or thirty miles of uninterrupted springy-
turf, glorious for galloping, is no great rarity.
The advantage, too, is as great as the pleasure.
From Hadad to Klausenburg, which takes always
three days in winter for a carriage, has been ridden,
by means of relays of horses, in less than six hours !
We arrived at Hadad at a fortunate moment;
they had just begun the vintage, and our host, the
young Baron W- F , who was a consider-
able wine-grower, invited us the next day to see
his vineyards. The vintage is always a merry scene
in every country, apparently rather from the asso-
ciations connected with its produce than from any-
thing peculiar in the labour itself ; unless, indeed,
we allow that the beauties of nature, in which the
season of the vintage is so rich, has its effect even
on the coarse nature of the peasant. I believe that
such is the case, and moreover, that many an uncul-
tivated soul which lacks words in which to clothe
its feelings, is far more capable of appreciating the
glories of God's works than the whole race of maud-
lin town-bred poets who prate so loudly of them.
THE VINTAGE. 227
After about an hour's gallop across some rich
green meadows, in which the beautiful Baroness
W accompanied us, — for the ladies of Tran-
sylvania almost rival our own as horse-women — we
arrived at the vineyard, situated on the slope of a
small hill. There were about one hundred peasants
employed in picking and carrying large baskets of
the bright grapes to a small pressing-house near by.
Beautiful groups they formed as we caught sight
of them every now and then, half hid among the
tall vines : there were young and old, men and
women — the village seemed to have sent out all
its forces for the joyous occasion, and in dresses
so picturesque too, that the artist's fancy could
have desired no happier union of colour, form, or
expression.
Leaving the Baroness in conversation with some
of the old peasant women, the Baron beckoned us
away, and led us alone to see the pressing process.
I could not understand this mystery, but, like a
wise man, held my tongue, and submitted, — and it
was well I did. In a number of large tubs we found
a set of almost naked men dancing barefooted, with
all their force, to the music of the bagpipes, on the
heaps of fruit which the carriers were throwing into
them. I did not wonder we were led to this place
alone, for except in some of the Silenic processions
of Poussin, I never saw so extraordinary a scene.
And it is in this manner the whole wine of this
country is prepared ! The Transylvanians, who are
Q 2
228 THE VINTAGE.
singularly delicate as to the cleanliness of their food,
declare that every possible impurity is driven off in
the fermentation the wine goes through after, and
I was not sufficiently cruel to undeceive them.
The great object of all this dancing seems to be to
break the grapes, for they are afterwards subjected
to the press. I need not say that a thousand simple
mechanical contrivances might be substituted for
this nasty process. It is reckoned that one man
can dance about two hours, when his feet become
so cold that he is forced to yield his place to an-
other. In cold weather, hot wine is often poured
over their legs to enable them to hold out longer,
and spirits are allowed almost ad libitum. But the
greatest support of the wine-presser is the bagpipe
or fiddle, without which he could not continue his
dancing half an hour. During the whole time, he
dances the regular national step, and accompanies
it with a song, which he improvises as he goes on.
The usual termination of the vintage is a supper and
a dance for the whole village.
Transylvania is a country which will probably
one day assume a high rank as a wine-growing
district. It is almost entirely laid out in small
hills, it is well watered, a great many of its strata
are of volcanic origin, and the land itself is rather
poor ; all circumstances which, united to its geogra-
phical position, fit it for the purposes of the wine-
grower. Although, even at the present time, no
less than one-ninth of the whole population is
TRANSYLVANIAN WINES. 229
said to live by the cultivation of the vine, nothing
can be more careless than the actual method of
wine-making. All kinds of grapes are mixed in-
discriminately; no care is taken to separate the
over-ripe and those yet green from the others ; and
the process of pressing is, as I have described it,
dirty and careless. The cultivation of the vine is
equally neglected or ill-understood. Notwithstand-
ing these disadvantages, however, there are already
some score different kinds of wine which enjoy a
well-deserved reputation. Their reputation, how-
ever, is only provincial, for so little is this country
known, that its wines are scarcely heard of, even
among the Hungarians. They are mostly white
wines, and are remarkable for their bouquet and
flavour, as well as for considerable body. They are
perhaps, less strong than the generality of the Hun-
garian, but they are also less acid and thin than
some of the finer white wines of that country. It is
very characteristic of the state of commerce here, that
there is not a single wine merchant in the country,
and when at Klausenburg, we found it difficult to
get even a tolerable wine to drink. Every gentle-
man, nay, every respectable tradesman grows his
own wine, and he would rather send a hundred
miles off for it, than give hard cash to buy it of
another on the spot.
Some of the most celebrated wines of Transyl-
vania, and those which it would be most worth the
foreigner's while to inquire after, are those of the
230 TRANSYLVANIAN WINES.
Szilagysag, the Kokel, and Maros. The wines of
the Szilagysag are celebrated for their strength and
durability. They are chiefly white wines of a plea-
sant flavour, full-bodied, and when new, are very
heady. The highest price, in an ordinary year, of
the better sorts is about two shillings per eimer
(sixteen bottles). The best are those of Tasnad and
Szordemeter. In the valley of the Maros, the
wines of Rozsamal, Malom-Falva, Czelna, Gures-
zada, Macsa, Oklos, and Babolna, are most sought
after; and again, in the valley of the Kokel, or
Kukiillo, those of Dombo and Bocacs. The Kokel
wines are less strong than those of the Szilagysag
and Maros, but perhaps more wholesome, and
equally well-flavoured.
Baron W , when in France, had engaged a
French vigneron to come and stay with him some
years, in order to try if he could make champagne
from the grapes of Transylvania. We had frequent
opportunities of tasting the wine he produced, and
though it was much too strong and heavy for cham-
pagne, it was sparkling and pleasant, far better than
the stuff we had often drunk under that name in
other countries.
On our return, we visited a small farm of about
three hundred acres, which our host had laid out a
year or two before, on the system of rotation crops,
and which was under the management of a clever
Scotch bailiff. We found the Scotchman, a giant
specimen of his countrymen, hard at plough, grum-
SCOTCH FARMING. 231
bling of course, as we all do, when abroad, at every-
thing foreign, from the very soil to the people it
nourishes. He was very proud, however, to show
us his barns, his stacks, his fat oxen, and his huge
potatoes, one of which filled a large dish of itself;
but he inveighed most bitterly against the laziness
of the poor peasants. He already spoke a jumble
of various languages, by means of which, and his
heavy fists, he managed to make himself under-
stood by Magyars, Wallacks, and Germans, with
all of whom he had to do. A short time previously
he had made rather too free a use of this latter
organ ; for, on some of the peasants attacking one
of the Baron's officers, to get at the wine he was
distributing to them, the Scotchman rushed in and
made such good use of his strength, that some of
them were laid up for months after. I could easily
believe when I saw him, that a blow from his arm
was quite sufficient to annihilate a poor half-starved
Wallack peasant.
Though the quantity of labour required by the
Scotchman, and the expensive processes by which
he cultivated, rendered it doubtful how far his
farming would be profitable in the end, the Baron
confessed that the amount of produce was enor-
mous, and that he received as much hay and corn
from these three hundred acres, as he had formerly
received from the fourteen thousand, of which his
estate consists. Many of the oak woods through
which we passed, were, he said, almost useless.
232 FARMING.
They furnished firewood, gall-nuts, acorns for the
pigs, and as many casks as he required for his wine,
but of net revenue he derived scarcely anything
from them.
About two thousand Merino sheep, which he
had just purchased, as a commencement of a flock,
promised something better. Beyond the first cost,
the expense of shepherds, and the gathering of win-
ter keep, he might reckon what they brought in as
clear profit, for the land they grazed on was of no
other value to him. Should a corn trade ever open
with England the case will alter, but at present the
low price of wheat, and frequently the impossibility
of disposing of it, renders its cultivation a hazard
and often a loss. With but little increase of ex-
pense, the Baron reckoned he could graze ten thou-
sand sheep, to which number he hoped shortly to
increase his flock.
As we approached the village, the Baron led the
way over some pretty good fences, to show us a field
of clover, of which the second crop was just cut.
This had been one of his earliest agricultural im-
provements, for in spite of the quantity of land he
possesses, he was formerly often in absolute want of
hay and straw for his own horses in winter. On
many Transylvanian gentlemen's farms, it is no un-
common thing to hear of horses and cattle dying of
starvation, if the winter is severe or a few weeks
longer than usual. This crop of clover had been
looked upon, therefore, as a treasure, and conceive
A REFORMER'S MISERIES. 233
his disappointment to hear one morning, just as
the first cutting was ready for the scythe, that the
peasants had broken down the fences, turned all
the cattle of the village into the field, and com-
pletely destroyed the whole crop. The starved
cows devoured this novel luxury so greedily that
they almost all died in consequence. Vexed as
our friend was at this piece of malice, he was even
more astonished the next day to hear that no less
than thirty of these same peasants had commenced
suits against him for having planted poisonous herbs
to kill their cattle ! Ignorance is a sad enemy to
improvement.
Baron W assured us this was only one of
a series of malicious injuries which he had brought
on himself by his attempts to improve the state
of his own property, and the condition of his
peasantry. " I have diminished the time of their
labour," he observed ; " I have lessened the
amount of their payments ; I have forbidden my
stewards and others to have any peasant punished
without a trial before the magistrates of the dis-
trict, and instead of gratitude, I meet with nothing
but injury from them ; they look at all these at-
tempts as so many signs of folly and weakness on
my part."
On further inquiry we found the peasants of
Transylvania in a far worse condition, and much
more ignorant than those of Hungary. When Maria
Theresa forced the Urbarium on the nobles of
234 STATE OF PEASANTRY.
Hungary, she published certain Regulations Punkte,
founded on nearly the same principles, for the go-
vernment of the peasants of Transylvania. Whether
it was that these Punkte were not adapted to the
state of the country, or whether its greater distance
from the central power allowed the nobles to evade
their adoption, it is certain they never obtained
the same force as the Urbarium, nor have any suc-
ceeding attempts to improve their condition met
with a better result. The Transylvanians say they
are ready and anxious to do everything that is right
and just, provided only it is done in a constitutional
form, through the intervention of the Diet.* In the
mean time the state of the peasantry is a crying
evil, and one which, if not speedily remedied by
the nobles, will be remedied without their consent,
either by the Government or by the people them-
selves ; and I fear the sympathy of Europe will
scarcely be in favour of those who oppose such a
measure of justice.
The frightful scenes which took place under the
leadership of Hora and Kloska, two Wallacks, who
in 1784, raised the peasants of Transylvania in re-
volt, are still fresh in the memory of the Transyl-
vanians, and may serve as a warning of what an
injured people are capable, when expectations of re-
dress are held out to them, and then disappointed.
* The Diet of 1837 nominated a commission to prepare an
Urbarium for Transylvania, but I cannot yet (1839) hear that
anything has been done.
STATE OF PEASANTRY. 235
It is said that Joseph actually promoted the insur-
rection of Hora and Kloska, and it is certain that
military aid was not sent to repress it so quickly as
it might have been ; but I do not believe the accu-
sation of intentional excitement. Independently of
the improbability that one, whose chief fault was
too much openness and honesty, should resort to
such base means, I think the mere belief that the
Government was favourable to their claims, and the
nobles opposed to them, when aided by the false
^presentations of designing leaders, would be quite
sufficient to cause such events among such a popu-
lation at any time. During the late popular move-
ment it has been the policy of the opposition to
attach the peasantry to their party by any means in
their power, and I feel certain that as hopes of
amendment have been raised,* it is now the interest
and the duty of the opposition to see that these
hopes are not deceived, be the sacrifice on their
part what it may.
Among the greatest evils of which the Transyl-
* I have since heard that on the publication of the Hungarian
Urbarium, the peasants, in every village of Tranjylvania, sent de-
puties to purchase copies of it for themselves, and paid the priests
to translate and explain it, and that there is not a village in Tran-
sylvania now without a copy of this act. I have been surprised to
hear a member of the Liberal party talk of this as a conspiracy,
and declare that the peasants ought to be punished for it ! Such,
I am sure, are not the opinions of the leaders of that party ; if
they were, I should be one of the first to say it was high time that
the Government interfered to check a liberty which manifested
itself only in enslaving others.
236 STATE OF PEASANTRY.
vanian peasant has to complain, is the absence of
any strict and well-defined code of laws to which
he can refer, and, in consequence of that deficiency,
his almost entire subjection to the arbitrary will of
his master, against which he has nothing but cus-
tom to urge in defence. The peasant-land too, has
never been classed here as in Hungary, accord-
ing to its powers of production, nor has the size
of the peasant's portion, or fief, been ever accu-
rately determined. The amount of labour there-
fore, cannot be fairly and legally proportioned to
the quantity and value of the land. Nor is the
amount of labour itself better regulated. In some
parts of the country it is common to require two
days a week ; in others, and more generally, three
are demanded; and in some the landlord takes as
much as he can possibly extract out of the half-
starved creatures wrho live under him. Here, too,
the flogging-block is in full vigour; every landlord
can order any of his tenants or servants, who
may displease him, twenty-five lashes on the spot,
and it is generally the first resource which occurs
to him in any disputes about labour or dues.
But it is in the hands of the underlings, the
stewards, bailiffs, inspectors, — a flock of hawks
which infest every Hungarian estate, — that this
power becomes a real scourge to the poor peasant.
It is the custom to pay these officers an exceed-
ingly small sum in ready money, as a salary,
so small indeed that it would be impossible for
DIVISION OF PROPERTY. 237
them to live decently upon it ; it is conse-
quently obliged to be made up by the addition of
some land, or by the permission to feed a certain
number of cattle, or horses, or to sell a certain
quantity of corn on their own account. Now to
cultivate this land, or to carry this corn to market,
labour is required, and this they generally manage
to get out of the peasantry without payment, either
by threats of punishment for slight or imaginary
offences, or by applying for themselves what ought
to be given to their masters. Generally both these
means are used, — the master is robbed, and the
peasant ill-treated.
From the manner in which estates are commonly
divided in Transylvania, it is nearly impossible for
the landlords to escape from the clutches of these
bailiffs. Every son has an equal share in the male
estates, and every child in the female estates of a
family. This equality of right in each individual
estate, is often the cause of great inconvenience,
for the same person might have a few acres only in
twenty different villages, when the expense and
difficulty of management would exceed the revenue.
Of course, the most natural remedy is an equitable
division among the members of the family them-
selves ; and, where this can be effected, it is well ;
but, where it cannot, their only remedy is culti-
vating in common, and dividing the profits. In
such cases almost the entire management rests in
the hands of the stewards, and this complication,
238 STATE OF PEASANTRY.
together with the endless law-suits to which it
gives rise, is one of the greatest evils to which
both the landlord and peasant of Transylvania are
subject.
The ignorance of the Transylvanian peasant is
of the deepest dye. He is generally superstitious
and deceitful, the two greatest signs of ignorance.
These qualities are most conspicuous in the Wai-
lack peasantry, but the Magyars are by no means
free from them. Schools are extremely rare. It is
only here and there that they have been established
by the good sense and liberality of the Seigneur,
and even then they have often failed for want of
a little caution and perseverance in those who have
conducted them. The peasants belonging to the
Greek church are undoubtedly the most ignorant,
those of the Unitarian and Lutheran churches, the
best educated.
We entered some of the Magyars1 cottages at
Hadad, and though they were superior to the Wai-
lack huts of Varhely, they were still very inferior
to those we had visited in Hungary. It is rare
that the Transylvanian peasant's cottage has more
than two rooms, sometimes only one ; his furniture
is scanty and rude, his crockery coarse, and those
little luxuries, which in the Hungarian denoted a
something beyond the needful, are rarely seen in
Transylvania. There is an air of negligence too
about his house ; his fence is broken, his stable out
of repair, and everywhere there is a want of that
COUNTRY LIFE. 239
thrifty look which declares that a man thinks he
has something worth taking care of, and hopes to
make it better.
The peasants of the Szilagysag have not the best
of characters. Though allowed to be fine, brave,
independent fellows, they are reckoned among the
most desperate rogues in the country. No Szilagy-
sag man thinks it a disgrace to have been flogged,
but, to have shrunk under a flogging.
The life of a country gentleman in Transylvania,
though somewhat isolated by his distance from any
large capital, and by the badness of the roads, is by
no means without its pleasures. For the sportsman,
a large stud of horses — few men have less than
from ten to twenty, — every variety of game from
the boar and wolf, to the snipe and partridge, and
a boundless range for hunting over, are valuable
aids for passing time. If a man likes public busi-
ness, the county will readily choose him Vice Ispan
or magistrate, and the quarterly county-meetings
are a constant source of interest, and afford ample
opportunity of exercising influence. If agriculture
has any charms, some thousands of untilled acres
offer abundant scope for farming, and promise a
rich return for capital. If philanthropy has claims
on his heart, the peasantry, who look up to him
for almost everything, afford a fine scope for its
effusions, and a certain reward if judiciously and
continuously exercised.
The houses of the richer nobles are large and
240 THE GOOD OLD TIMES.
roomy, and their establishments are conducted on a
scale of some splendour. It is true, that they are
deficient in many things which we should consider
absolute necessaries, but on the other hand they
exhibit many luxuries which we should consider ex-
travagant with twice their .incomes. It is no un-
common thing, for instance, in a one-storied house
with a thatched-roof and an uncarpeted floor, to be
shown into a bed-room where all the washing appa-
ratus and toilet is of solid silver. It is an every-day
occurrence in a house, where tea and sugar are con-
sidered expensive luxuries, to sit down to a dinner of
six or eight courses. Bare white- washed walls and
rich Vienna furniture ; a lady decked in jewels which
might dazzle a Court, and a handmaid without shoes
and stockings ; a carriage and four splendid horses,
with a coachman whose skin peeps out between his
waitcoat and inexpressibles, are some of the ano-
malies which, thanks to restrictions on commerce,
absence of communication, and a highly artificial
civilization in one part of the community, and great
barbarism in the other, are still to be found in
Transylvania. It is not, however, in such houses
as the one in which we were visiting, that such
anomalies are to be sought, but rather in those
who boast themselves followers of the " good old
customs of the good old times." But laugh as
we young ones may at those " old times," it is not
altogether without reason that the epithet of
"good," so pertinaciously clings to them. There
THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN. 241
is something so sincere and so simple in the manners
of those times, — when an Englishman wishes to
express his idea of them he calls them homely,
and in that word he understands all that his
heart feels to be dearest and best, — that see them
where we may, they -have always something to
attach and interest us.
In some of the old-fashioned houses in Transyl-
vania, there is still almost a patriarchal simplicity
in the habits of the family. An early hour sees all
the children, from the eldest to the youngest, — ay,
the married ones too — proceed in due order of
progeniture to the presence of their parents, whose
hands they respectfully kiss and from whom they
receive the morning blessing. After a simple
breakfast of one small cup of coffee and cream,
and a slice of dry bread, the family disperses for
the business of the day. The children are left to
their masters and governesses — and, oh, what a
nuisance those same masters and governesses are;
I have heard of no less than six living in one
family in the country at the same time. The
master of the house takes his meerschaum, ready
filled and lighted from the hands of his servant,
and sallies out, accompanied by his steward, bailiffs,
and overseer, to give directions for the cultivation
of his estate, or to settle the lawsuits of his pea-
santry; or, perhaps, the county-meeting calls him
into town, and then he wraps himself up in his
bunda, gets into his carriage, and four fat horses
VOL. II. R
242 THE GOOD HOUSEWIFE.
convey him to his destination. Or it may be, the
doctor has come over to see after the health of the
family, and the seigneur takes that opportunity to
lead him round the village, that he may bleed and
physic all those who have wanted it for the last
three months, or who are likely to want it for the
next three months to come.* Or, perhaps, some
quarrels amongst the peasantry, or some disobedi-
ence to his orders, have provoked the terrible anger
of the master, and he at once assumes the authority
of the judge, and condemns and punishes, where
he himself is a party in the cause. Or, perhaps,
the Jew merchant humbly waits an audience, and
with shining gold tempts him to dispose of the
coming vintage. And then the stables have to be
visited, and the cooper to be hurried for the vin-
tage, and the gipsies in the brickyard to be cor-
rected.
But, if the occupations of the lord are many,
who shall tell the busy cares and troubles of the
lady of the "good old times?" With not less than
one hundred mouths to provide food for daily, with
no resources of a market- town near at hand, with
stores, consequently, of provisions for six months
to be taken care of, and these provisions too of a
* A worthy old Baron, now dead, used to have the doctor over
every spring and autumn with a waggon-load of herbs. These
herbs, duly decocted and distilled, were administered to the whole
family and village, which were then considered sound for six
months to come.
MANNER OF LIVING. 243
variety* and quantity such as English housekeepers
can form no idea of, and which I unfortunately,
am very inadequate to describe ; with a crowd of
servants, including artificers! of various kinds, to
superintend and direct, the multiplicity of her
duties may be indistinctly guessed. If somewhat
less elegant, and less accomplished than the more
fashionable ladies of the capital, these worthy house-
wives are never deficient in that respectable dignity
which a strict performance of the duties of their
station confers.
At one, the old-fashioned family, even of the
present day, assemble in the drawing-room, and
proceed to dinner. It is rarely that they sit down
without some guest ; for, whoever of their acquaint-
ance happens to be travelling near, always manages
to drop in about dinner-time, as he knows he will
be well-received; indeed, his passing by without
stopping, would be considered an insult. And a
goodly sight is that hospitable board, for it is
* Among other objects strange to us, might be mentioned the
collection of snails. The large wood-snail is a favourite dish here,
and a very good one it is. The snails are drawn out of the shell,
cut small with a kind of savoury stuffing, and served up re-
placed in the shell. As for their being disgusting, it is all fancy.
I have seen delicate ladies relish snails exceedingly, who would
have shuddered at the sight of a raw oyster. In some parts of
Transylvania, instead of eggs and fowls, the peasants pay their
tribute in snails and game. One lady's ordinary winter supply
was upwards of five thousand snails.
t In some houses, the weaver and tailor are hired servants ;
and in most, the cooper, baker, and smith.
R 2
244 MANNER OF LIVING.
crowded by those who might otherwise be ill pro-
vided for. Besides the family and guests, all the
governesses and masters dine at table; and then
there are three or four stewards and secretaries,
and the clergyman of the village, or perhaps both
clergyman and priest, and the poor schoolmaster,
all of whom never dine at home when the seigneur
is in the country.
The dinner, instead of being placed on the
table, is carried round, that every one may help
himself, each dish being first presented to the lady
of the house who never fails to take a small
portion by way of recommending it to her guests.
As for telling the reader of what the dinner is
composed, it is impossible ; but I can assure him,
that both in quality and quantity, he must be very
difficult to please who is not satisfied. The elite
of the company retire to the drawing-room, after
dinner, to partake of coffee and liqueur, while
the inferior guests, who have not the entree, make
their bows and depart. When speaking of the
occupations of the ladies of Transylvania, it would
be very ungrateful were I to omit their talent in
making liqueurs ; some of the home-made liqueurs
of Transylvania equal the best marasquinos
and curaqoas in flavour. A drive out in the
cool of the evening in summer, and embroidery,
cards, books, and conversation, with the inter-
lude of a goute composed of fruits, preserves, sa-
voury cold meats, and, now-a-days, tea, and at
EXCURSION TO NAGY BANYA. 4245
nine, a supper nearly as large as the - dinner, com-
plete the occupations of a day in the country in
Transylvania.
But it is high time I returned to our travels.
Baron W kindly offered to accompany us to
Nagy Banya, just beyond the north frontier of
Transylvania, to visit the gold mines there. It is
a good day's journey, even in summer, and the only
chance of accomplishing it at this season, was by
sending on beforehand, half way, a light carriage,
so that the horses might be rested, and ready to
go forward directly we arrived.
We started on horseback ; and after a delight-
ful ride, sometimes winding through fine forests
of oak, now crossing a rich green meadow, now
losing ourselves and making straight across the
country for the nearest village, to inquire our
way, and now toiling along a muddy lane where
the horses sunk almost up to the middle in the
mire, we at last arrived where the carriage was
waiting for us. The greatest drawback to the
pleasure of such a ride is the danger of injuring
one's horse in crossing the rude wooden bridges
which are thrown over the brooks in this country.
They are composed of unhewn stems of trees
laid side by side with a coating of soil over them.
From accident or carelessness, nothing is more
common than to find a considerable interstice be-
tween these stems, which is concealed by the soil,
and so becomes a veritable pitfall. My horse put
246 THE GIPSIES.
his foot into one of these, and sank up to the
shoulder ; but, fortunately, he escaped without
injury.
In the course of our ride, in a small valley a little
off the road, the Baron showed me a colony of
gipsies, — permanent, as he said, in contradistinction
to others who are always erratic, — who occupy a
little land, and do him some work for it. The
reader may have remarked that I do not hesitate
here, as well as in other parts of this Work, to
speak of the Czigany of the Hungarians by the
English name of gipsies, for it is impossible to
doubt their identity. There is the same dark eye
and curling black hair, the same olive complexion
and small active form. Then their occupations and
manner of life, different as are the countries and
climates they inhabit, still remain the same ; fid-
dling, fortune-telling, horse-dealing, and tinkering
are their favourite employments, — a vagabond life
their greatest joy. Though speaking several tongues,
they have all a peculiar language of their own, quite
distinct from any other known in Europe. Here,
as with us, they have generally a king too, whom
they honour and respect, but I have not been
able to make out what establishes a right to the
gipsy crown. I believe superior wealth, personal
cunning, as well as hereditary right, have some
influence on their choice.
They first made their appearance in this country
from the East, about the year 1423, when King
THE GIPSIES. 247
Sigmund granted them permission to settle.*
Joseph the Second tried to turn them to some
account, and passed laws which he hoped would
force them to give up their wandering life and be-
take themselves to agriculture. The landlords were
obliged to make them small grants of land, and to
allow them to build houses at the end of their
villages. I have often passed through these Czi-
gany vdros, gipsy towns, and it is impossible to
imagine a more savage scene. Children of both
sexes to the age of fourteen, are seen rolling
about with a mere shred of covering, and their
elders with much less than the most unfastidious
decency requires. Filth obstructs the passage into
every hut. As the stranger approaches, crowds of
black urchins flock round him, and rather demand
than beg for charity. The screams of men and
women, and the barking of dogs — for the whole
tribe seems to be in a state of constant war-
fare— never cease from morning to night. It is
rare, however, that when thus settled, they can re-
main the whole year stationary ; they generally dis-
appear during a part of the summer, and only
return when winter obliges them to seek a shel-
ter. Others wander about as they do with us,
* In Hungarian law they are called "new peasants." The
name of Pharaoh nepek, Pharaoh's people, I imagine has been
given either from contempt, or error. The name Czig&ny, by
which the Hungarians call them, is so like the Zingari, Zigeuner,
Gitani, Gipsy, of other nations, that I have no doubt it is the one
they originally gave themselves.
248 THE GIPSIES.
gaining a livelihood, as accident throws it in their
way. They are said to amount to sixty-two thou-
sand three hundred and fifteen in Transylvania.*
The Austrian Government, I believe, is the only
one in Europe which has been known to derive any
advantage from its gipsies, but by means of the
tax for gold washing, to which we shall allude
hereafter, it must derive a considerable revenue
from this people. They are often taken for sol-
diers, and are said to make pretty good ones.
Most of them are christened and profess some
religion, which is always the seigneur's — not the
peasants' — of the village to which they belong.
In fact the gipsies have a most profound respect
for aristocracy, and they are said to be the best
genealogists in the country.
Their skill in horse- shoeing, — they are the
only blacksmiths in the country, — and in brick-
making, renders them of considerable value to the
landlord. What is the exact state of the law with
respect to them, I know not ; but I believe they are
absolute serfs in Transylvania. I know the settled
gipsies cannot legally take permanent service out
of the place they were born in, without permis-
sion, or without the payment of a certain sum of
money.f
* This enumeration is taken from a very imperfect statisti-
cal work, on Transylvania by Lebrecht, and is, I suspect, exag-
gerated.
+ In Wallachia, when I was there, they were sold as slaves in
the open market. I believe this law has been since abolished.
THE GIPSIES. 249
They are just as great beggars here as else-
where, and just as witty in their modes of begging.
A large party of them presented themselves one
day at the door of the Countess W , whom
they used to call the mother of the gipsies, from
her frequent charities to them, with a most piteous
complaint of cold and hunger — all the children,
as usual, naked ; when the chief pulling a sad
face, begged hard for relief; " for he was a poor
man," he said, " and it cost him a great deal to
clothe so large a family."
Of the most simple moral laws they seem to be
entirely ignorant. It is not rare to see them em-
ployed as servants in offices considered below the
peasant to perform. They never dream of eating
with the rest of the household, but receive a
morsel in their hands, and devour it where they
can. Their dwellings are the merest huts, often
without a single article of furniture. Having such
difficulty in supporting themselves, as is manifested
in their wasted forms, one cannot help wondering
how they can maintain the pack of curs which
always infest their settlements, and often render it
dangerous to approach them. By the rest of the
peasantry they are held in most sovereign con-
tempt. As I was travelling along the road one
day, after my return from Turkey, my servant
turned round as we met a camp of gipsies, and
exclaimed, "After all, sir, our negroes are not so
ugly as those in Turkey."
250 NAGY BANYA.
On arriving at a village about half-way to Nagy
Banya, we found the servants had laid the table
at a miserable cottage, though the best in the
place, when quickly despatching the good dinner
which was waiting for us, we got into the waggon
and hastened on as fast as we could. It was night,
however, before we reached our destination ; and
we had an opportunity of proving the inconve-
niences of travelling in the dark, in such a coun-
try ; for, in passing a small overflow, the waggon
sunk on one side into a deep hole, and quietly
overturned us all into the water. We escaped
with no other injury than a good wetting, which
we managed to rectify by means of the liqueur-
bottle, which S had instinctively grasped in
the fall, and so secured from injury.
Nagy Banya, is rather a pretty little town, with a
large square and some buildings, so good, that one
wonders how they could ever have got there. The
country round it is mountainous, and some of the
valleys in the neighbourhood are exceedingly pretty.
The mining district, of which Nagy Banya forms
the chief place, extends for a considerable space
around it ; but, though still rich in ores, it is much
less important than some others we have visited.
The most interesting of the mines is that of the
Kreutzberg, close by the town, which, having been
worked by the Romans, and afterwards deserted,
has been re-opened within the last eighty years, and
now yields a considerable return. We entered it
NAGY BANYA. 251
by a fine adit, which will soon be fit for horse
waggons. Traces of the beautiful Roman work
were visible on every side. We found them work-
ing a new vein, or rather an offset from the old
one, which was tolerably rich, and seemed to offer
good prospects of continuance. The centner of
ore contains about eight ounces of silver, and every
ounce of silver forty denarii of gold. The Kreutz-
berg produces about four marks of gold per month.
The matrix is generally porphyry. To free the
mine from water, an eight-horse wheel working a
pump is kept in constant motion. Not many years
since, a skeleton, supposed to be the remains of
an ancient miner, together with some tools, and a
Roman lamp, was found in this mine.
The most interesting object connected with the
Kreutzberg, is a vast cleft which penetrates from
the surface to a depth of three hundred and eighty
yards, and which extends twelve hundred yards in
length, and is six feet wide. When this cleft
was produced is not known; but, if I remember
rightly, there is reason to believe it was since the
time of the Romans.
We visited the smelting-works, which are situ-
ated somewhat higher up the valley, and found
them in a better condition than almost any others
we had seen.
The chief products of these mines, are gold and
silver, the amount of which I have seen stated, the
former, at four hundred marks per an., the latter,
252 MINING.
at eighteen thousand marks. Besides these some
copper, lead, and iron are produced. The officers
on the spot could not give us the net amount of
these products per an., for the gold and silver are
sent off from Nagy Banya to Kremnitz every month,
in a single mass, and are only separated when they
arrive there. Of the mixed metal, they say about
twelve hundred marks are produced every month,
which would reduce the amount considerably lower
than that given above.
Mining is one of those tempting speculations,
which it is very hard for persons living in a mining
country to resist ; yet it is just one of the most
dangerous, for those ignorant of its mysteries, to
meddle with. To the scientific miner, I have no
doubt, Transylvania offers certain wealth; but to
a country gentleman, who puts his money into a
mine much as he would into a lottery, it is a pretty
certain loss. A member of our friend's family had
fallen into this snare, and we had intended to visit
the mine ; but we heard such a poor report of it,
that it was not thought worth the time. In fact,
a steward, who had been dismissed for dishonesty,
had begged to be employed to conduct a mine,
which he declared, after a very small outlay for the
first year, would not only pay itself, but soon pro-
duce a very handsome return. From a mistaken
feeling of kindness the request was granted ; and
now, after three years1 working, no return could
be heard of.
TRANS YLVANI AN TRAVELLING. 253
On our way back to Hadad the next day, we
began to feel extremely hungry, and our horses
seemed quite ready for a rest about one o'clock,
at which hour we found ourselves near a village
where there was no inn. " Never mind," said the
Baron, " we have got plenty of cold fowls and
ham, and wine; and the coachman has not for-
gotten some corn for his horses, so that we shall
not starve. But, as it would not be pleasant
to sit and eat our dinner here, — (the snow was
beginning to fall,) — we will go to that house,"
pointing to a gentleman's house at the other end
of the village; "for though the master is not at
home, and I know him very slightly, I am sure the
servants will be very glad to let us in/' When
we drove up to the door, the servants no sooner
heard our wishes, than they opened the dining-room
and offered us anything they had, as if it had been
a matter of course. The horses were put up in the
stable, and the coachman bought some more corn
of the bailiff and gave them a double feed. The
absence of inns renders this kind of hospitality an
absolute duty, and no one hesitates to avail himself
of it when in need.
Though it was yet scarcely the middle of No-
vember, the snow fell so heavily that every one
declared it was setting in for winter, and we
were glad, therefore, to get back to Klausenburg as
quickly as we could. It was melancholy to see the
peasants up to the knees in snow, searching for
254 RETURN TO KLAUSENBURG.
the grapes which were not half gathered. It is
reckoned that a great part of this year's vintage will
be entirely lost. By following a longer, but better
road, we were enabled to reach Klausenburg in two
days, with no other accident than the breaking of
some iron-work of the carriage, which we were able
to supply by means of ropes.
'
VALLEY OP THE ARANYOS AT BAKE.
CHAPTER IX.
THE SALT MINES AND GOLD MINES.
Horse Fair at Klausenburg. — Moldavian Horses. — Cholera in
Klausenberg. — Thorda. — Valley of the Aranyos. — Miklos
and his Peccadilloes. — A Transylvanian Invitation. — The
Wallack Judge. — Thoroczko. — The Unitarian Clergyman. —
St. Gyb'rgy. — A Transylvanian Widow. — Peasants' Cottages.
—The Cholera.— A Lady's Road.— Thordai Hasadek.— The
Salt Mines of Szamos Ujvar. — The Salt Tax. — Karlsburg. —
The Cathedral and krumme Peter. — Wallack Charity. — Za-
latna. — Abrud Banya. — The Gold Mines of Voros Patak —
Csetatie. — Detonata. — Return. — College of Nagy Enyed. —
English Fund. — System of Education.
THE reader must now allow me to pass over three
quarters of a year, of which period I shall give him
no further account than to say it was passed in
256 HORSE-FAIR.
travelling through some parts of Greece and Turkey,
and he must fancy me returned to Transylvania,
determined to see the part of the country which
the approach of winter had prevented me from
visiting the year before. My brother had taken
Mr. S 's place as my companion; but, alas!
Mr. H had left for England, and I was forced
to content myself with such poor sketches as I could
make myself of what most struck me in this tour.
When I came back to Klausenburg, it was just
at the time of the horse-fair ; and a number of gay
carriages were rolling about, making the whole
place seem quite alive. This fair has only been es-
tablished a few years, and it is as yet considered a
matter of honour for the chief horse-breeders to
send a number of their horses, if only to show them.
A large circus has been enclosed on the outside of
the town, in which the horses are trotted and galloped
round, while the company, including a crowd of
ladies, occupy a kind of stand erected at one end.
As the most beautiful horses of the country are
produced here, and as they are often ridden by their
owners, it is a very animated scene. On the outside
of the circus, the carriage horses are exhibited ; and
many were the smart teams of four long-tailed little
horses, which whirled the light carriages round the
circle.
In one corner we found a group of some hun-
dred perfectly wild horses from Moldavia, not one
of which had ever had a halter round his neck.
HORSE-FAIR. 257
They were guarded by a set of men, if possible, even
wilder-looking than themselves. Some of these
horses were by no means deficient in good points ;
and though they do not bear a high character here,
the low price at which they were sold, — eight or
ten pounds the pair, — tempted purchasers. To see
the newly purchased horses separated from the herd
was a great treat ; it was one of the most clever feats
of address and courage I almost ever witnessed. No
sooner was the horse fixed on and pointed out, than
one of the savage-looking tenders rushed into the
herd, seized him by the ears and mane, and hung to
him with all his strength. Alarmed at this treat-
ment, the poor beast became furious, dashed about,
kicked, reared, and put every artifice of horse inge-
nuity in force to get rid of his enemy. It was all in
vain, there the fellow hung, — now in the air, now
on the ground, — he still held to the head. No bull-
dog could pin his adversary more securely. Fati-
gued at last with his own exertions, the horse was
quiet for a moment, when a rope with a slip-noose
was thrown over his neck, on which three or four
men pulled with all their might, till they dragged
him out of the herd. Half dead from strangula-
tion, fear, and fatigue, the poor creature was now
bound tightly to his fellow, and the pair were led
off. When they first felt themselves yoked as it
were, there was generally one more struggle for
liberty; but it was useless, they only exhausted
each other's strength, and probably became suffi-
VOL. II. S
258 CHOLERA IN KLAUSENBURG.
ciently tame in a few hours, to be harnessed to a
waggon and driven home.
The gay aspect of Klausenburg, however, soon
disappeared. It was the season of the harvest, and
all good landlords had plenty to do at home.
There was another reason also which called the
better-intentioued into the country. The cholera
was raging frightfully through almost every part of
the land, and the peasantry, the chief sufferers, had
no one from whom they could ask or expect aid
and advice but their lords and ladies ; and nobly,
in many instances, did they perform their duties.
Personal attendance even in some cases, and medi-
cine and food in almost all, were liberally supplied.
Of the numbers who perished during this attack
it is impossible to give any account; I doubt even
if it is known. In Klausenburg, for some time,
the number of deaths amounted to from twenty to
thirty a day; and before it ceased, probably not
less than one-twentieth of its population was car-
ried off. I have heard of some villages in which
even a tenth perished. We were lodged just op-
posite one of the gates of the town which led
to the great cemetery, and through which every
corpse was carried out. From two o'clock, as
long as daylight lasted, the funerals proceeded in
one melancholy procession. It is the custom
that every member of a trade should be followed
by the whole of the corporation to which he
belonged, and it is therefore scarcely a figure of
THORDA. 259
speech to say that all Klausenburg was engaged
in this mournful task. A gipsy band is a ne-
cessary attendant on a Transylvanian funeral ;
and it is usually accompanied by the voices of a
hundred followers chanting a mass or singing a
psalm as they marched along. The soldiers, too,
suffered severely, and the fine military bands were
generally heard three or four times every after-
noon. These melancholy scenes, and the continual
tolling of the great bell, rendered Klausenburg
really more like a city of the dead than the
living ; and we were heartily glad when our pre-
parations were made, and we could dissipate our
gloomy thoughts by new scenes and new objects of
interest.
In the little excursion which we made, and which
did not occupy us more than a week, I think it will
be best to follow my journal.
August 18th. — Left Klausenburg and got to
Thorda for dinner. Finding nothing very interest-
ing, though there are said to be some remains of
a Roman road in the neighbourhood, and the post-
house is ornamented with some Roman bas-reliefs
we engaged horses to take us on to Thoroczko,
where we hear there are some iron-mines well
worth seeing. We agreed to pay eight shillings a
day for five horses, the coachman being bound to
maintain himself and steeds.
The road to Thoroczko was hilly, and in many
places so bad that we could only advance at a
s 2
260 VALLEY OF THE ARANYOS.
foot pace, A little before sunset, we arrived at
the summit of a very high hill, from which we had
a splendid view over a fine mountainous country,
with crags and precipices on every side, and just
below us the little village of Bare, and the Aran-
yos winding along the valley. Across the river was
one of those curious covered wooden bridges, so
common in Switzerland ; indeed, there was nothing
but a snow mountain wanting to have made us
fancy ourselves in the Cantons. As we were slowly
descending the hill at the imminent hazard of our
necks, with both wheels locked, and the servant
hanging to the step to balance it, I began to
make some inquiries as to the distance we had still
to go before we arrived at Thorockzo, where we had
been told there was a comfortable inn. I may
add, in a parenthesis, that a comfortable inn in
Transylvania means a dry room, clean straw, and
a couple of roast chickens for supper. " Oh, I
quite forgot," exclaimed Miklos, " to tell your
grace that I have learnt at Thorda, that there is
no inn at Thoroczko ; but it is of no consequence,
for the Countess T lives there, and she would
certainly be very glad to entertain you." It was
of no use scolding — though, like most angry men,
I believe I forgot that in my anger — for although
this fellow had been in my service nearly a year,
I had never been able to make him feel why I
often preferred a poor dirty inn to a handsome man-
sion, and starved chickens to good fare. That any
MIKLdS. 261
motives of delicacy could make me hesitate to
intrude on the hospitality of those with whom I was
unacquainted, was an idea altogether so foreign
to the habits and customs of Transylvania, where
in fact such visits are not considered intrusions, that
it was no wonder the poor fellow could not com-
>rehend it.
But it is time I introduced this same Miklos to
the better acquaintance of the reader, for a traveller
who is ignorant of the vulgar tongue of a country
in which he travels, is so dependent on his servant,
that the character of the latter has often more
influence on his adventures than even his own.
After dismissing old Stephan, I had taken a man
who turned out so great a rogue that I was obliged
to get rid of him as soon as I arrived in Klau-
senburg the first time ; and here some friend found
Miklos for me to supply his place. Miklos was a
stout good-looking little fellow of about twenty, who
spoke Hungarian and Wallack perfectly, and knew
as much German as enabled him to get through
a message, which had been twice repeated to him,
with only two or three blunders. His greatest
merits were his desire to travel, and his constant
good-humour in all the difficulties attendant on it.
If anything was to be drawn out of an ill-tempered
landlady, or a rigid-looking custom-house officer was
to be softened, Miklos was pretty sure to manage
the affair. Then he could make a bed, cook a
dinner, cut hair, mend clothes, sleep on the ground,
262 MiKLds.
fast for a week, and bargain with a Jew. If the
carriage stuck in the mud and we required addi-
tional assistance to get it out again, he was the first
to mount a horse and gallop off without bridle or
saddle to the next village, and it was hard if he
came back without having obtained his object.
If the coachman could not drive his team or had
an unruly leader, Miklos mounted as postilion or
took the reins, and drove as if he had been bred
a Jehu. These were all valuable qualities; but
then the fellow was careless; made endless mistakes,
which no scolding could teach him to avoid for
more than twenty-four hours; and had, moreover,
a shocking habit of making love to every woman
he came near. He got deep into the affections of
a lady's maid at Pest, attracted the attentions of
a Greek widow in Constantinople, promised mar-
riage to a Wallachian girl at Bucharest, and was
besieged by a host of inamoratas in Klausenburg.
Some may fancy that all these were no matters of
mine, but I assure them they are mistaken, for
independently of the annoyance of complaints from
masters and mammas, love-making occupies much
time which might be better employed; besides that,
leaving every place one enters with a Dido deso-
lata delaying the start is by no means agreeable.
Notwithstanding his peccadilloes, however, Miklos
was a good servant, and I must say I was sorry
when I left the country and was obliged to part with
him — especially when I saw him neglect to take
THE WALLACK'S COTTAGE. 263
up his money, and blubber like a great child at
leaving me.
The valley of the Aranyos and the little village
of Bare which we had now reached, looked so in-
viting, that I was much tempted to make a better
acquaintance with it, and accordingly desired Miklos
to see if it was not possible to get a room in some
peasant's cottage for the night. The judge imme-
diately offered us beds in his house, and promised
us some supper too if we would stay; an offer I
was glad to accept in spite of Miklos's contemptu-
ous expression when he found it was a Wallack
under whose roof we were to rest.
While they were making all possible preparations
in the cottage, we scrambled along the craggy banks
of the river for a considerable distance up the valley.
Some mines in the neighbouring mountains gave
food to an iron hammer which was plying its
noisy restless task, disturbing the whole vale with
its melancholy song.
However Miklos may have sneered, the Wal-
lack judge's cottage was by no means so bad.
Besides the room in which the whole family lived,
and the entrance where they cooked, — both of which
were certainly very filthy, — there was another room,
which, if it had no other floor than the hardened
clay, and no other wall than the baked mud, was
yet dry and tolerably clean. It contained two
beds, very short and very hard, and, all around,
were hung rude earthen jugs and pots, and in one
264 AN INVITATION.
favoured corner was a cluster of pictures of hideous
saints, after the most orthodox models of the Greek
church. But the pride of the family consisted
in a long row of not less than twenty aprons,
besides a number of shirts, ostentatiously displayed
along one side of the room. The aprons were such
as are commonly worn by the Wallack women ; but
of a finer wool, and of beautiful colours. The shirts
were of coarse linen, but prettily embroidered with
blue at the wrists and neck. The whole of this
treasure was the produce of the housewife's own
hands.
As we were examining these arrangements, while
Miklos was disposing some new pieces of home-
spun linen in the guise he thought most likely to
make us fancy them a table-cloth and napkins, a
clattering of horses' hoofs was heard to cease at
the door, and he was presently called out to speak
to some stranger. When he returned, it was to
announce that a servant of the Countess T was
just come to say that his mistress had heard of our
visit to Thoroczko, and would expect us to take
beds at her house. Here was a pretty affair ! The
carriage unpacked, the horses in the stable, and we
expected some miles off! However, it was now too
late to think of going further, and besides, I had
taken a fancy to the Wallack's cottage. The beds
too were made, a wax-light robbed from the car-
riage — these people were too poor to have candles
of any kind — threw a cheerful light over the room,
AN INVITATION. 265
everything was put in order, and I fancied it looked
very comfortable ; in addition to which, the cloth,
such as it was, was laid, and the smell of roasting
was far from disagreeable to men who had not eaten
since mid-day, so that there was nothing to be done
but send a very polite message with an excuse for
not coming, on account of the lateness of the hour,
and a promise to do ourselves the honour of paying
a visit the next day.
I know not whether it was the difficult masti-
cation of the fibrous old cock which now smoked
upon the table, or some other cause, which called
up certain doubts in my mind as to the correctness
of the message which had just been delivered ; but
certain it is they did arise, and I forthwith ques-
tioned Miklos as to whether he had learnt how the
Countess could have heard of our coming, as we
knew she herself had but just returned to Tho-
roczko from another part of the country. " Why/'
said Miklos, making more than his usual num-
ber of blunders in German, as he answered, " the
fact is, the Countess does not know of it yet, but
she soon will ; the servant who had been to Klau-
senburg on business, had heard there of your Grace's
arrival in this part of the country, and so he thought
of course you would visit his lady, and he hastened
home to tell them of your corning ; but as he found
we were stopping here, he told your Grace that
they already were expecting you, that he might
not have to come back again to say so." And thus,
266 THOROCZKO.
on the servant's invitation, I had coolly sent to say
I should visit a lady to whom I had no introduc-
tion, and whom, though I knew by name, I had
never seen in my life. Oh ! I could have broken
the rascal's head for his blunder! but he was evi-
dently unconscious of any fault, and thought, I have
no doubt, that both he and the other servant were
a couple of very clever fellows.
19th. — Rose early, got a sketch of the bridge
and river, and started for Thoroczko, where we ar-
rived before ten. It is a pretty little town, cleaner
and with better houses than one generally sees.
Its inhabitants are all Magyars and Unitarians.
A friend in Klausenburg had given us a letter to
the Unitarian clergyman, as the person best able
to give us information of anything worth seeing in
the neighbourhood, and we drove straight to his
house. He was out attending a sick parishioner;
but his wife received us, and insisted on sending
to inform him of our coming.
In the mean time we entered his modest dwelling,
which, except in being rather larger, and having
the kitchen and servant's room separated from
the dwelling-rooms, differed little from those of his
peasant neighbours. Its interior, however, bespoke
his superiority. The two little rooms of which it
consisted were crowded with book-shelves. Here
they groaned under quartos of Latin theology >
there they displayed probably all the best works
in Hungarian literature, — and no great number
THE UNITARIAN CLERGYMAN. 267
either — while, in another part, belles lettres and
natural history flourished in mis-shapen tomes from
the German press. Some fine minerals from the
neighbourhood which were scattered about, and a
number of little drawers, which I am sure con-
tained specimens, declared our priest a natural
philosopher. While we were making these ob-
servations, a stout, middle-aged man, with a mild
expression of countenance, long black hair hanging
down his back, and dressed in an Hungarian coat
and knee-boots, made his appearance; and by a
long complimentary speech in Latin, proclaimed
himself our host. Before he was half through his
address, I interrupted him, and petitioned for Ger-
man; but lie declared off on the score of inability,
and we were accordingly forced to carry on a medley
discourse of Latin and German, as we best could.
We found the immediate object of our visit, the
iron mines, were in a very bad state, and scarcely
worth the trouble of seeing. The clergyman told
us of several natural curiosities in the mountains
near; but they demanded a day or two at least
to visit them, and we determined therefore, after
paying our self-proffered visit to the Countess, who,
our friend assured us, was a "nobilissima et gene-
rosissima dama? to return to Thorda. We were
not allowed to leave, however, without visiting the
Unitarian church; a large, and rather handsome
building for the size of the town. The object to
which our attention was more immediately drawn,
268 ST. GYORGY.
however, was the organ ; it was a recent acquisition,
and was exhibited, I thought, with no small feeling
of clerical pride.
After all, the Countess T did not live at
Thoroczko, and we were therefore obliged to
penetrate some miles further into this beautiful
valley before we reached St. Gyorgy, the place
of her residence. Nothing can be more secluded
than this valley, nothing more lovely. On one
side it is bounded by precipitous cliffs, on the very
summit of which we could perceive some ruins of
an old castle, on the other are wooded hills, and in
the middle a pretty stream and rich meadows and
corn-fields.
We drove at once to the chateau, where we were
received as expected guests, our horses taken out,
and ourselves set down to lunch, as a matter of
course. The Countess T was a lady of the old
school, possessing all that easy dignity of manner
which, when united to a warm heart, forms the
perfection of the social character; and, though
now in the decline of life, exhibiting a regularity
and delicacy of features, which told she must
have been a beauty in her younger days — nor
was their tale belied by the image of those days
which, for us was reproduced in the person of
her daughter. The servant had not been mis-
taken ; for it was certain that his mistress expected
not only that we, but that all other gentlemen
who travelled through her secluded valley should
ST. GYORGY. 269
visit her on their way. Any idea of leaving be-
fore dinner was scarcely allowed utterance. " As
a widow," said the Countess, " my forenoons are
pretty well occupied, for in Transylvania, we must
be farmers, miners, doctors, and I know not what
else beside. I leave you free, therefore, till the
hour of dinner, when I shall expect the pleasure
of seeing you again. See," she added, "the bou-
quet my steward has brought me this morning ;
it is composed of the heaviest ears of corn he
has been able to find this season, and I assure you
no hothouse flowers could be half so agreeable
to me."
The Countess Julia observed, that perhaps as
strangers, we might feel interested in visiting the
cottages of some of the peasants ; and added that
if we did not fear the cholera, which had unfor-
tunately made its appearance in the village, she
should be happy to show us some. Of course we
were delighted to accept the offer. " St. Gyorgy,"
she added, " is, I believe, one of the richest villages
in Transylvania; and for the credit of my country,
I am therefore, the more anxious you should see
it. The peasants are Magyars, and mostly of the
Unitarian belief."
The cottages were of one story, and built on
the same general plan as all the others we had
seen ; but in many cases they were larger, and
the farmyards seemed more plentifully stocked.
One house into which we were taken, might
270 THE RICH PEASANT.
have been held up as a pattern of cleanliness and
order in any country. Round the best room
hung a prodigious quantity of fine bed-linen,
beautifully embroidered on the edges, in different
colours. " This is the handiwork of the unmar-
ried girls, and is intended as their dower : and
hard enough they work at it/' smilingly added
our fair informant, " for they cannot get hus-
bands, till, by such works as these, they have
given good proofs of their industry and talent."
The daughter of the house was easily persuaded
to put on her Sunday costume, which was as
rich as embroidery and ribbons could make it.
The St. Gyorgy girls are said to have the hand-
somest dresses of any village in the district. What
a pity it is, that all these beautiful costumes, and
the honest pride and self-esteem they give rise to,
must disappear, as soon as the cheap wares of
Manchester, or some other cotton capital, gain
entrance to these valleys, and drive household
manufactures from the field ! If real civilization,
founded on improved institutions and an enlight-
ened system of education, do not accompany the
introduction of luxuries produced by machinery,
they may become a curse instead of a blessing to
a people. It is difficult to find for the uneducated
peasant-woman an occupation more befitting her
powers of mind and body, more consistent with
her duties of mother and housekeeper, than is
afforded by the simple processes of spinning and
ST. GYORGY. 271
weaving. If this is taken away, and the means
of applying herself to higher and more difficult
objects are not afforded, she has little left but
idleness, or the coarse degrading labours of the
field.
The owner of this house, though a simple peasant,
was said to be possessed of more than a thousand
pounds. The only advantage he had enjoyed above
his fellows, was in being freed from the seigneurial
labour-dues for some service rendered to the late
Count, — industry and sobriety had done the rest.
The only book I could see in the house, was a large
Hungarian Bible, richly bound and fastened with a
pair of heavy brass clasps.
We had time enough before dinner to wander
about the village, and climb a conical hill, at a little
distance from it, on which stand the picturesque
ruins of the Castle of St. Gyorgy. We had a fine
view from this point, over the whole valley. Further
than we had yet traversed, we could observe an
exit from it by means of a vast cleft in the lime-
stone rocks which otherwise bounded it on every
side. On looking back over the road we had come,
we saw more clearly the few walls on the summit
of those stupendous cliffs, which mark where the
old castle of Thoroczko formerly stood. It would
require at least two hours' good climbing to reach
it from the valley. It was formerly always the lot
— I cannot call it privilege — of the eldest sons
of the family of Thoroczko to inhabit this
272 THE CHOLERA.
mountain nest ; while the younger were allowed
to choose some less ambitious dwelling in the
valley.
"You have visited St. Gyb'rgy at a very unfor-
tunate moment," said the Countess when we re-
turned ; " the cholera, which set in only two days
ago, has assumed a very serious aspect to-day. Since
yesterday no less than four deaths have been re-
ported to me, and I fear we must expect many
more." For these persons we found the Countess
was the sole physician, her house their dispensary,
and sometimes even their hospital, for she had had
several of them brought there, that they might be
better attended to. Several times, during dinner,
her daughter was obliged to leave the table to send
off medicines for some new patient who claimed
her aid. In this she was assisted by the steward
and clergyman, who seemed both to take an active
interest in the fate of the poor sufferers. During
the short time we remained, five more deaths were
reported.
In returning to Thorda, the Countess proposed
that we should take a nearer road than that by
which we had come. " It is rather a rough one,"
she added ; " but it is the one I always take my-
self, and I do not suppose that, for young men like
you, its little dangers will be any objection." After
many adieus and kind invitations to renew our
visit at a more favourable moment, we at last
started. Our new route led us almost immedi-
A LADY'S ROAD. 273
ately from the village, up the sides of a high
and steep mountain, after having mastered which,
we were promised a continual descent. As we
turned round to take a last look at the scene
we were leaving, we witnessed one of those beau-
tiful effects which none but the dwellers in moun-
tain lands can ever behold. A storm came roaring
up the valley below us, throwing everything into
deep shade, except the castle on the hill, which
caught a gleam of sunshine, and stood out in
bright relief against the black mountains behind
it. We paid, however, dearly for the treat :
by a sudden veer of the wind, the storm seemed
to quit the valley ; and clinging to the side of
the mountain, followed our footsteps, overtook
us, and beat with such force on the horses that
they turned round and refused to move any
further. Flogging made no impression on them,
they only kicked and backed, — and they
had chosen for that operation a ridge cof the
mountain, from whence one might have slipped
into immortality, almost before one was aware
of it.
Our only remedy was to sit still while Miklos
mounted one of the horses, and went back to beg
the Countess would lend us some oxen to drag us
up the rest of the mountain. A peasant, however,
who was at work at some distance, and saw our
difficulty, took his horses out of the plough ; and
harnessing them before ours, got us at last to the
VOL. n. T
274 THORDAI HASADJ^K.
top. So much time had been lost, that it very soon
became dark, and we found ourselves in a bad and
dangerous road, which it was impossible to traverse
faster than at a foot pace. Miklos was obliged to
take the lamps and walk on before, while we held
the carriage from falling over. We were not only
every moment in danger of overturning, but of losing
the carriage at the bottom of a ravine whence it
would have been impossible to recover it. Instead
of four hours, we occupied eight in this short cut,
but we were too well contented to have escaped
with whole skins, to grumble at the loss of time.
Such roads may suit Transylvanian ladies, but
Heaven preserve all English gentlemen from them !
- — A steeple-chase is safe in comparison.
20th. — Projected a visit this morning to the
Thordai Hasadelc, a mountain cleft, of the same
kind as that we saw at a distance yesterday from
St. Gyorgy, but said to be much larger. In tra-
versing the few miles which separate the Hasadek
from Thorda, we passed over a part of the Prat de
Trajan, where the great victory was gained by Tra-
jan, over Decebalus. Though Transylvanian anti-
quaries place the scene of the action more to the
east, and nearer the banks of the Maros, than our
route led us, I am inclined to think they must be in
error ; for we observed a great number of tumuli
in this direction, of a size and form which render
it exceeding probable that they were intended »
to commemorate the death of the heroes who fell
THORDAI HASAD£K. 275
on that occasion. I am not aware that any of them
have been opened, or that any tradition exists as to
their origin.
After about an hour's drive we arrived at the
entrance to the Hasadek. We descended into a
little valley in the form of a semicircle, which sur-
rounds the opening of the cleft, and is inhabited by
a few poor Wallacks and their cows; and scram-
bling over some broken rocks, entered this extraor-
dinary place.
Let the reader imagine a chain of low mountains,
twenty miles long, cut transversely through to a
level with the valleys they divide, and he will have
some idea of the Thordai Hasadek. In no place
(I should think) is the cleft more than twenty yards
wide at the bottom, though it increases somewhat
towards the top. As might be supposed, the sides of
it are as precipitous as anything can be imagined.
A small stream which rises from some springs in
the semicircular valley, makes its way among the
broken rocks through the cleft, and passes out at
the other side. It so nearly occupies the whole
of the space left between the rocks, that we had to
cross it at least twenty times in order to find dry
footing; sometimes we had to pick our way for
a considerable distance along the stepping-stones
placed by the peasants in its bed, and once to climb
the rocks at the imminent hazard of slipping into
the pool below.
Some of the cliffs in this valley are truly mag-
T 2
276
BAYLUKA.
nificent. In one place they rise from the very
base, in a perpendicular line to the summit, a
height I will not ven-
ture to guess. About
midway through the Ha-
sade*k, and at some height
up the side of the cliff,
there is a remarkable
cavern called the Bay-
luka. A steep pathway
leads up to the entrance,
which is defended by a
double wall, with ram-
parts and holes for musketry. The cave itself is
large, and arched like a vast Gothic hall, and is
capable of containing a hundred persons. Beyond
the first chamber it divides into several smaller
ones, which we could not penetrate far into, for
want of lights. It is extraordinary that opposite
the Bayluka, on the other
side the cleft, there is a
second cavern, of which
the natural entrance is
exactly like the first.
This is interesting; be-
cause it proves that they
were once joined toge-
ther, and that it was only
by some violent convul-
sion that they were torn
THORDAI HASADtiK. 277
asunder. The stratum is a compact limestone, as
far as I observed, without fossils.
The first of these caverns was formerly the fa-
vourite stronghold of a celebrated Transylvanian
robber, Bay, from whom it takes its name. A
number of popular stories exist about this Bay,
though I was not able to collect any of much in-
terest; but if he was half the hero he is repre-
sented, it must have required a brave man to
attack him in his mountain fortress.
We traversed the cleft completely to the other
end, and I should say, the distance is from two to
three miles. At one point, where the brook filled
up the whole valley, and the rocks came down close
to the water's edge, we met a gay party of peasant
lads and lasses in their holiday clothes, apparently
going to some merry-making in the next valley.
The lads tripped lightly over the rocks, where we
could hardly find footing, and many were the jokes
and jeers they cast at the girls, when they sat down
to take off their sandals preparatory to wading the
brook, which they preferred to the exposure their
modesty feared from climbing the rock. A curious
phenomenon we observed at the far end of the val-
ley,— a natural arch formed in the rock, with an
arched roof and window, so much like the work of
the Gothic architect, that it is no wonder the pea-
santry should have christened it the chapel. I must
not forget that the superstitious attribute the whole
cleft to a prayer of St. Ladislaus, who entreated that
278 THE SALT-MINES
the mountain might open, and save him from the
heathens. If it is so, I can only say we are in-
debted to the saint for one of the most beautiful
scenes of rocky grandeur I know.
On our return to Thorda we started for Maros
Ujvar, a small village about twelve miles off, where
are the chief salt-mines of Transylvania, which we
reached late in the evening.
21st. — We sent to request permission to enter
the mines, and received a polite answer, that we
had only to present ourselves, and one of the offi-
cers would feel great pleasure in conducting us over
them.
The chief part of the salt-mines of Maros Ujvar,
is formed by three vast subterranean chambers. As
they were not using the buckets, we were obliged
to descend by the staircase. Before we had reached
six feet from the surface, the salt was already per-
ceptible. After passing some new workings which
we shall understand better when we have describ-
ed the principal ones, we descended to the lower
workings.
We entered at one end of a vast hall — two hun-
dred and seventy feet long by one hundred and
eighty wide, and two hundred and ten high, — with
a Gothic arched roof, dimly lighted by the candles
of the miners. At the opposite end to that by
which we entered, was a huge portal, reaching
nearly to the top of the chamber, and affording en-
trance to a second, and that again to a third hall
OF MAROS UJVAR. 279
of equal extent with the first. On a signal being
given, a sudden blaze burst forth in each of these
chambers, and lighted up the whole space with a
brilliant illumination. It was the grandest sight
I had ever beheld. The walls were of solid rock-
salt, which, if not so dazzling as writers are gene-
rally pleased to describe it, was extremely beautiful
from the variety of its colours. It resembled
highly polished white marble veined with brown,
the colours running in broad wavy lines.
The size of these halls, the effect of the light,
the grandeur and extreme simplicity of the form,
with the exquisite purity of the material, impressed
me with a feeling of their architectural beauty,
beyond that of almost any object of art I know.
No words can express the intense enjoyment with
which I regarded them.
As soon as we could sober down sufficiently to
listen to the details of our conductor, he pointed
out the whole floor of the chamber covered with
workmen employed in detaching and shaping vast
masses of the salt rock preparatory to its ascent.
It is cut by means of sharp hammers into long
blocks of about one foot in diameter, which are
afterwards broken up into masses, weighing from
fifty-eight to fifty-nine pounds each, and in this
form it is brought to market. The accuracy with
which they can measure the weight is extraor-
dinary. After shaping his block above and on
the sides, the miner calls to two or three of his
280 THE SALT-MINES
neighbours to aid him in detaching its base from
the rock. This is effected by repeated blows of
very heavy hammers on the upper surface, the most
exact time and equality of force being maintained.
This is the severest part of their labour, but it lasts
only a few minutes at a time.
The number of workmen employed here is about
three hundred. Among these are Magyars, Wai-
lacks and Germans. The Magyars are said_ to
work the hardest, but also to drink the hardest. I
believe the tales one so often hears of men being
born and dying in mines without ever having seen
the light is pure fiction ; it certainly is not the case
anywhere in Hungary, and least of all here. The
miners begin their work at three o'clock in the
morning and leave it at eleven, and the average
rate of wages for eight hours' labour is about ten
pence. In such large spaces the air could scarcely
be otherwise than good, and the temperature is
always the same — 13° of Reaumur — summer and
winter. The employment is far from unhealthy,
and even children often apply themselves to it
very young.
Some of the new workings, which are higher
than those we have described, are laid out for the
same kind of chambers. In one part a hole has
been cut through the roof of the first great hall,
and as we looked into the vast abyss, innumerable
lights seemed dancing below, and figures flitting
round them, while the clear ring of many hammers
OF MAROS UJVAR. 281
faintly reached the ear. The poet who would de-
scribe a descent to Erebus, might envy me that
sight.
The quantity of salt annually produced from these
mines is six hundred thousand centners, all of
which, with the exception of about thirty thousand
used in the neighbourhood, is sent to Hungary.* In
this calculation I believe the dust salt, or broken par-
ticles produced by the hammering, is not included.
Many thousand centners of this salt are thrown
into the river every year. For each of the masses
of fifty-eight pounds which we have mentioned
above, the miner receives two and a half kreutzers
(twopence). With all the expenses, however, the
centner is delivered at the pit's mouth, for about
twenty-four kreutzers c. m., or tenpence. It is
sold in Transylvania at three florins and a half, or
seven shillings, the centner. The greater part,
however, is sent by the Maros to Szegedin, at an
expense of about tenpence more each centner. It
is sold there at seven guldens and a half, or fifteen
shillings, the centner !
There has been so much complaint against this
* The east of Transylvania is supplied from mines in the
Szekler land, which we shall visit later, and the North of Hungary
chiefly from Velicska and the Marmaros. In a small work on
Transylvania, published by M. Lebrecht, in 1804, the amount of
salt furnished by Transylvania, is stated at above a million cent-
ners. The price was then one fifteenth of what it is at present.
The population has increased and the consumption fallen off. Is
not the elevation of price the cause ?
282 THE SALT-TAX.
price of salt in the Diet, that we must say a few
words more about it.
A monopoly of the sale of salt is one of the
Royal privileges, acknowledged as such by the
nation, and enjoyed by the Crown for a long suc-
cession of years. It can hardly be supposed, how-
ever, that the right of the Crown can extend to
raising the price of one of the first necessaries of
life to any amount it may think fit ; for this would
be the admission of an indefinite and irresponsible
right of taxation on all classes. To go no farther
back than 1800, the price of salt was at half a
florin (one shilling) per centner. The long and
exhausting wars, which brought on two national
bankruptcies within a few years of each other, were
an excuse for raising this price to three florins
and a half in Transylvania, and seven and a half
in Hungary. Even during the continuance of the
war, complaints enough were heard against this
augmentation, and since that time they have be-
come every year more angry and more just.
Now there are several reasons which render the
continuance of this exorbitant burthen peculiarly
injudicious. First of all it has a bad reputation.
The gabelle has been so often the cry by which a
revolutionary leader has excited the passions of a
mob, — it is so closely associated with recollections
which all prudent statesmen would avoid awaken-
ing, that one cannot help wondering it should be
continued. And then, hitherto, the Hungarians
THE SALT-TAX. 283
have entertained a notion that their cattle could
not live without a large admixture of salt with their
food ; but they are beginning to find out that this
is an error, and to see that although the cattle like
salt and will eat coarser food with it than they
would without, it is neither necessary to keep them
in health nor to feed them; and if such a dis-
covery spreads very far, it will cause a greater
loss to the revenue than the diminution of two-
thirds of the price of the salt, for the quantity
used by men is small in proportion to that given
to the cattle.
But the most extraordinary part of the affair is,
that the Government incurs this obloquy, and runs
the chance of this loss, all to no purpose. The
whole line of frontier, from the Adriatic to the
boundaries of Russia, is beautifully adapted for
smuggling; and bulky as salt is, I can assure the
reader it is smuggled in along the whole of this
frontier. If I am asked from whom I have ob-
tained this information, I can only answer from
some of the Government salt officers in Hungary,
who told me that they themselves bought their salt
from the smugglers ! If any Austrian official doubts
the extent to which this traffic is carried on, let
him compare the returns from the frontier coun-
ties with those from the interior, in proportion to
their population, and he will hardly doubt the fact.
I have been shown the salt smugglers' paths on
the frontiers of Wallachia, where they often come
284 SALT SMUGGLERS.
over with whole troops of laden horses. I have
heard from the county magistrates, that it was
ridiculous to attempt to oppose them ; that they
had the sympathy of the peasantry with them, and
were not only able to bribe the border guard, but
that they came in such numbers, and so well armed,
that they did not dare even to make a show of resist-
ing them. I doubt if there is one great proprietor
in the south of Hungary, who uses Government salt,
except in such quantity as decency requires to blind
officers who do not wish to see. In that part of
Hungary, bordering on Transylvania, the more ten-
der-conscienced declare they would not use Turkish
salt on any account; but I found that that was
because it was cheaper to smuggle it from Trans-
sylvania, where it is only half the price it is in
Hungary. " Oh ! " they exclaimed, when charged
with this peccadillo, "we buy the Emperor's salt,
at any rate ; we don't go to those rascally Turks
for it:" — absolutely priding themselves on their
loyalty, when compared with the sinnings of their
neighbours.
And, then, what has become of the paternal
anxiety to keep out the plague, which led to the
establishment of such a vast and perpetual cordon
as that of the borderers? It is certain, that not a
day terminates in which men with bags of salt do
not pass from one country to the other, without
any intervention of quarantine, or process of puri-
fication. For the maintenance of a paltry tax, the
KARLSBURG. 285
health of all Europe is constantly exposed to an
invasion of the plague !
The foreign trade, of course, is entirely lost by
he increase of price; and Wallachia, Moldavia,
id Servia, which formerly drew their salt from
Hungary, now, as we have seen, return the com-
pliment.
22nd. — Karlsburg. We arrived here last night,
after a pleasant drive along the rich and beautiful
valley of the Maros. Every day these valleys of
Transylvania gain on one's affections. They are
so green, so smiling, so varied in their beauties,
that it is impossible not to love them.
Our host, we find is a character. Krumme (lame)
Peter, as he is called, is a noble ; and, besides the
)rivileges of his order, he is one of those happy
mortals who have achieved the right to say and do
whatsoever seemeth them good to whomsoever they
please. Though his inn is by no means the best, and
although he allows no one to find fault, everybody
goes to it for the sake of Krumme Peter. It is
amusing to see how quietly he assumes an equality
with the proudest Count or Baron of the state ; how
he discusses their families, their fortunes, their opi-
nions, and what sharp home truths he sometimes
tells under that air of half-dignity, half-buffoonery,
he commonly puts on. And then, Krumme Peter,
keeps a table which might content a bishop, and
he does the honours of it, too, with a feeling of
the importance of the duty ; and, after all, he
286 KARLSBURG.
charges you so little, that you begin yourself to
doubt whether you have not been his guest rather
than his customer.
Karlsburg is formed by two distinct towns, the
one, a long, ill-built, straggling village, occupying
the plain ; the other, a handsome fortress, con-
taining many good buildings and neatly laid out,
situated on the hill above. We reached the for-
tress by a winding road, defended by walls, into
which were built a number of Roman statues,
and tablets bearing inscriptions. These are re-
mains of the Roman Colonia Apulensis, which oc-
cupied the site of Karlsburg. Within the fortress
is a museum, in which still more interesting anti-
quities of the same period are preserved. Colo-
nia seems to have been the mining capital of
the Romans in Dacia, the seat of the Collegium
Aurariarum, and the residence of the Procurator
or chief officer of the gold mines.
The present fortress is of no greater age than
the time of Charles the VI. (1715), whose name
it bears. As a fortress, nothing can be worse
placed ; it is ill supplied with water, and com-
manded by the neighbouring hills. It is said to
have been built after a plan of Prince Eugene's ;
and, if I mistake not, it is not the only bad fortifi-
cation I have heard attributed to him.
In the centre of the fortress is a fine cathedral,
built in fulfilment of a vow to St. Michael, made
by Hunyadi Janos, in the battle of St. Imre. I
THE CATHEDRAL. 287
think it was in this battle that the order had been
given to the Turkish army to seek out and destroy
Hunyadi, who was distinguished by his white plume
and brilliant armour. This news having been re-
ported to the Hungarians, Kemeny, one of the
officers of Hunyadi, assumed the armour of his
chief, and nobly devoted himself to a certain death,
to save his country the loss of her greatest general.
The cathedral, which is small, is in a style half
Gothic, half Byzantine, characteristic enough of
the age and history of its erection. The exterior
is heavy, and the ornaments, which are in the
barbarous taste of the Byzantine school, are far
from relieving it. The interior, however, is in a
more bold and pure Gothic style; and the tra-
cery on the capitals of some of the long slender
pillars, is as graceful and light as anything in
York.
For a long time, this cathedral was the favourite
burying-place of the princes of Transylvania. The
tombs of Hunyadi, and his beheaded son Ladis-
laus, and another of his family, though much in-
jured, are still interesting. The figures of the
knights, which resemble those we so often see in
our own churches, decorate the top of each sarco-
phagus. That of Hunyadi is represented as clothed
in a flowing mantle, beneath which is a tight sur-
coat, fastened round the waist by a cord, and which,
falling back from the legs, displays the tight panta-
loons, resembling those worn at the present day.
288 MONUMENTS.
The two other figures are of a later date, and are of
much ruder workmanship. They are both in ar-
mour, but with waists more ridiculously pinched in,
than even a Paris milliner would venture on. Still
further, we found the tomb of Isabella, and her son,
John Sigmund Zapolya. It was this princess who
introduced from Poland, her native country, the doc-
trines of Unitarianism into Transylvania, and who
likewise granted equal rights and privileges to the
four churches, which still constitute the established
religions of the country. This monument is in white
marble, of a considerable size, and ornamented with
bas-reliefs, interesting as illustrating the costume
and mode of warfare of that age. We find cannon
and heavy arquebuses already in use, although the
horsemen are completely encased in armour. The
chivalry of Transylvania is seen advancing in battle
array, each knight bearing on his spear not only his
banner, but a kind of tuft, something like the horse
tails of a Turkish Pasha. Under the great porch,
we observed, on one side, a slab to the memory of
George Rakotzy I., and on the opposite side was
the pedestal of another, of which the slab had been
removed. It is said, that in 1716, when the Ca-
tholics again obtained possession of the cathedral —
for it had served in turn for Catholic, Unitarian,
and Calvinist — they had the pitiful bigotry to
destroy the monument of Bethlen Gabor, which for-
merly stood there. The verger denied all cogni-
zance of the matter, but confessed he knew nothing
THE MINT. 289
of any such monument ; and I must say, this vacant
place looks very much as if the allegation were true.
I could not help smiling at the pious horror the
verger seemed to have of Protestant persecution,
when he said, that during the time the Protestants
possessed the church, they only allowed the Ca-
tholics the use of the porch, which was fitted up as
an oratory ; but he forgot to say that the Catholics
did not leave the Protestants even that poor pri-
vilege, but turned them out altogether.
The Transylvanian mint, where all the gold found
in Transylvania is coined, stands near the cathedral.
We were allowed to walk in and examine it with-
out difficulty. We found them at work with some
new presses made by an Englishman in Vienna ;
they spoke of them in high terms, and they were
certainly very superior to those we had seen at
Kremnitz. The average monthly coinage I have
seen stated at 100,000 florins (10,000/. sterling).
This is probably about correct, for I find the whole
amount of gold said to be produced in Transyl-
vania, estimated at 2500 marks (the mark, 3G/.
12*.) or 91,500/. ; of silver, 500 marks, (mark, 21.
10*.) or 12,500/.; together 104,000/. Great com-
plaints are made by private speculators in mines,
against the facilities afforded by the mint to gold
robbers. In an article of so much value, it is
almost impossible to prevent the common miners
from stealing when occasions offer ; but good police
regulations, which would prevent jewellers from
VOL. ii. u
290 GOLD-STEALING.
purchasing raw metal, and strict observance on the
part of the mint, to receive it only from persons
who can have obtained it honestly, — and that is
easily known, for every mining adventurer must
possess a permission from the Crown — would do
much to check the practice. Here, on the contrary,
every grain is eagerly grasped at by the mint under
the absurd and mischievous notion which we have
often had to notice, that it might otherwise be sold
out of the country, and so impoverish the land.
Thus we see a government establishment from pure
ignorance of the simplest principles of political
economy, labouring to demoralize those whom it
ought, and whom I believe it wishes only to benefit.
On quitting Karlsburg, for the mines of Zalathna,
we left the valley of the Maros, and with it, to all
appearance, the habitable world itself. A secluded
valley cut out of the hard rock by the little river
Ompoly, whose banks we followed, brought us at
last however to our journey's end. It was a sultry
day, and five long hours did it take us to accom-
plish the task. Not that we had anything to com-
plain of; the valley was often pretty, and every
now and then a curious rock, which seemed, as it
were, to have started from the side of the mountain,
gave occupation to our thoughts in attempting to
account for the manner of its formation. And a
still more pleasant theme for musing, — for it was on
the kindliness of the heart of man, — did we discover
in a custom of this secluded valley. Under the cool
CHARITY. 291
shade of a large spreading tree by the road side, and
just high enough to place it out of the reach of
cattle, we noticed a small wooden frame, some-
thing like that often seen in Catholic countries,
containing the image of a favourite saint. Instead
of a saint, however, in this one there was a large
pitcher, such as the peasants commonly use for car-
rying water. Opposite this tree our peasant driver
deliberately pulled up his horses, and getting off
the box, took down the pitcher from its niche, and,
after first offering it to us, indulged in a long and
hearty draught of the pure fresh water it contained.
To the Transylvanian peasant, under a Transylva-
nian sun, a great quantity of water is an absolute
necessary. Of that we had been often made aware,
for our coachmen constantly stopped the carriage
without thinking it at all necessary to ask permis-
sion whenever they saw a well, or a clear stream,
to quench their thirst; we had often, too, seen
the peasant woman, as she carried home her full
pitcher from the well, offer it to the passing tra-
veller without a moment's hesitation, though it cost
her the trouble of returning some distance to refill
it. But here, where no friendly spring was nigh,
some neighbouring peasant family had undertaken
to supply the deficiency by erecting this little
structure, and providing it with a constant supply
of fresh water. How many a weary traveller had
gained fresh strength from the bounty of this
unknown hand ! " I was thirsty, and ye gave me
u 2
292 ZALATHNA.
drink;" — never were the words of our Saviour
more beautifully illustrated ; never was charity
performed in a more Christian spirit.
23rd.— At Zalathna itself, there was little to be
seen beyond the smelting houses, which differed
in no essential points from those we had seen
before. At some distance further up into the
mountains, in the neighbourhood of Voros Patak,
we had heard that there were some extraordinary
mines, and, somewhere in the same direction a
basaltic mountain of very wonderful proportions.
So having spent a good part of the morning in
providing a guide and saddle horses, — for we were
told it was impossible to make the excursion in
a carriage, — we ate an early dinner and started.
Besides ourselves and the Wallack guide, we set
Miklos between a couple of carpet bags, on a
fourth horse, that he might serve as interpreter
and general provider. Our immediate destination
was Abrud Banya, where we were promised beds
and a supper.
For the first two hours the road led us along
a thickly wooded valley, where our horses had
some difficulty to find a footing among the loose
stones with which it was filled. No solitude could
be more complete ; during the whole time not a
soul crossed our path. Just at the point where
we were to leave this valley, and cross the moun-
tain, about half the distance to Abrud Banya, we
came suddenly on a comfortable-looking little inn,
A CONFESSION. 293
with half a dozen carriages and a number of ser-
vants standing before the door. A more unex-
pected apparition could scarcely have presented
itself in the back woods of America.
We had hardly passed the door before some of
the servants came running after us with their
masters' salutations, requesting to know who we
were, and where we were going, and offering us,
at the same time, their company on the road. The
first part of the matter I had no hesitation in
satisfying, but the latter was more than I could un-
dertake. I know that I was wrong, — I am perfectly
aware that a traveller who undertakes to amuse or
instruct others by his travels, is in duty bound to
suffer all manner of annoyances ; to go " poking his
nose " — as a certain minister for foreign affairs
expresses it when his protection is asked for an
enterprise of difficulty and danger — into all manner
of disagreeables, where he has any hope of extract-
ing amusement or information ; and from these
gentlemen I have no doubt I might have obtained
much, for they were the great mining notabilities
from the whole country round — the Berg Raths and
Berg Inspectors, and I know not who else beside, —
who had been solemnly admitting a new member
ito their body, of course over a good dinner,
that forming a part of all solemn ceremonies all
over the world. I know, therefore, how much
I have failed, and I impose this confession on
myself as a punishment for my backsliding ; but
294 ROUGH ROADS AND RIDING.
really 1 had not the courage to go through the
ordeal of answering all their questions about our-
selves, our objects, and our travels ; of listening to
all their remarks thereon, and, above all, of suffer-
ing their hospitality — for there are moments when
well-meant but rude hospitality inflicts much suffer-
ing. In fact I must have been out of temper, for
all I could bring my politeness to do, was to answer
their queries, that they might not take us for spies,
or what not, and apologize, on the plea of a coming
storm, for not delaying longer on the way.
As we passed the mountain, we had occasion again
to wonder at the strange passion the middle classes
here seem to have for travelling in carriages in
preference to horseback or on foot. The road was
frightful; in many places it was positively dan-
gerous, and everywhere rough enough to dislocate
the best-set bones; yet we met a young man of
not more than twenty, sitting out all this in a
waggon without springs, and smoking his meer-
schaum just as composedly as if he had been
enjoying himself exceedingly.
When we had reached the other side of the
mountain, and had again descended into a valley,
we found ourselves in the midst of mining opera-
tions on every side. Not a little stream but was
employed in moving crushing-mills and washing
ore. Most of those we remarked were working
gold ores, which prevail over the whole of this
district ; but some also those of mercury, which
ABRUD BANYA. 295
occurs in the form of cinnabar. I was sorry not
to have an opportunity of seeing the process by
which the mercury is extracted from the cinnabar;
but I could not make out even where it is car-
ried on.
Abrud Banya, which we reached before sunset, is
a little metropolis in its way, and, like many of the
mining towns, astonishes the stranger by an exhi-
bition of wealth and luxury which he little expects
to find in the midst of the wildest natural scenery.
Many of the houses are large, and really hand-
somely built. Some have owed their origin to
persons whom a lucky mining adventure has made
suddenly rich, others to the officers of Government
who, some how or other, manage to live well, and
acquire wealth in spite of their paltry salaries : — I
leave the explanation of this interesting mystery
to the penetration of their employers.
24th. — We got off this morning at an early hour,
in hopes of reaching Zalathna before night, but the
accounts of the distance as well as of what we have
to see, are so various and contradictory, that it
seems highly probable we may have to bivouac
somewhere in the mountains. Our first point was
the mines of Voros Patak, the Csetdtie or fortress, as
it is called. For the first hour we kept along a good
road, constructed for the conveyance of the ores
from Voros Patak to Abrud Banya, where they are
smelted. The country was a succession of moun-
tains as far as the eye could reach, for the most part
296 MINES OF VOROS PATAK.
covered with wood, or pasture. We noticed several,
however, the lower portions of which were conical,
while their summits offered a singular appearance of
a small table-land supported by bare cliffs. At a
distance they looked like rocky islands, standing
out from a stormy ocean. From their white appear-
ance, I suspect them to be limestone.
On leaving the road, which would have conducted
us to the bottom of the valley in which lies Verb's
Patak, we turned along the back of the mountain,
and in about half an hour arrived at the Csetdtie
Mike, or little fortress. This hill is so called from
the appearance of a ruined fortress, — or rather of a
honeycomb, bored through and through on every
side, — which it presents. The most unlearned of my
readers are probably aware that in the generality
of mines, the metalliferous ores are found in veins
which traverse the mountains in various directions,
and that it is the duty of the miner to pursue
these wherever they may go, removing only so
much of the surrounding matter as is necessary to
enable him to carry on his operations ; here, on the
contrary, the whole mountain mass contains gold
and it is, in consequence, cut away somewhat as
we often see stone in a common quarry, and in
this form it is conveyed to the crushing-mills, and
broken up. Sometimes it is found too in a nest,
or bunch, that is, a small extent containing much
more ore than the surrounding mass. Formerly,
however, it possessed veins too, of wonderful rich-
CSETATIE MARE. 297
ness, and these the early miners have pursued and
exhausted, and it is to the open mouths of these
old levels, and to the peculiar operations carried on
at the present time, that it owes its remarkable
appearance.*
The Csetdtie Mare (the great fortress), on the
other side of the mountain, is still more curious.
The whole top of the mountain has fallen in, and
produced a kind of vast hall, open above, in the
very heart of the mountain itself. From the side of
the mountain we entered an old level, large enough
for laden horses to pass through — something like
a covered way into a fortress — and in a short time
arrived at a large circular space completely walled in
by solid rock. Above us was a wide opening, —
something like what the crater of a volcano may
seem to Vulcan's friends as they amuse themselves
below — and round about a number of open passages
of every size and shape. These openings were the
remains of former workings, and they were highly
illustrative of the history of mining in Transylvania.
There were small passages scarcely large enough for
the body of a man, which I am inclined to refer to
the efforts of the barbarians both before and after
the conquest of Dacia ; then there were the stately
chiselled levels of the Roman workmen, and here
and there marks of where the fire had done its
* I strongly recommend the careful study of this mountain
and district, to those interested in the inquiry, as to the origin
and causes of metalliferous veins.
'298 LABOUR AND CAPITAL.
work ; and again the more careless traces of the
modern Wallack's labours. It is probable that the
greater part of this space had been exhausted before
the top fell in ; and from the appearance of the
masses which still encumber it, I should imagine it
to have been a mere shell. Some of the old Roman
levels, which we followed deeper into the mountain
to see the present workings, are really splendid. I
think it is no exaggeration to say that a carriage
and pair might drive along them.
It is a curious fact in the history of labour that
there are no large capitals employed in working
these mines ; they are entirely in the hands of poor
peasants, who work them either singly or in small
associations of two or three persons. When the
mountain was richer, Government found it worth
while to work on its own account; but since it
has become poorer, none but the peasants, it is
said, can get a good profit out of it. Accordingly,
when a peasant makes an application for a grant
of so many square yards of mountain it is never
refused him, unless it interferes with the workings
of some of his neighbours. The working we visited
was carried on by a father, two sons, and their
mother. The father bored, blasted, and filled the
panniers, while one son sometimes aided him, some-
times drove the horse from the mine to the crush-
ing-mill. Here the other son and the mother were
engaged, or sometimes the mother alone. In other
cases the same hands dig the ore, transport it to the
LABOUR AND CAPITAL. 299
river, dress it, wash it, and finally convey it to
Abrud Banya. It is scarcely necessary to say, with
such a system, that all these processes are carried
on in the rudest possible manner. As we looked
from the top of this mountain into the valley below,
I think we must have seen not less than five hun-
dred crushing-mills and washing-floors within the
space of a couple of English miles. They consisted
of a single small wheel, generally deficient in half
its buckets, which moves three crushing-poles, none
of which go equally, and one of which is generally
wanting, or broken. As the crushed stuff falls
down, it is carried by the water over a single board,
and the small residue it leaves is collected, and
without further dressing, transported to the smelt-
ing-house. In spite of the excessive rudeness of
these mechanical processes, and the loss they oc-
casion, the peasants manage to get rich by them.
Vb'ros Patak is said to abound with houses loaded
with every luxury the ignorant Wallack peasant
can think of. It is impossible to attribute this
to any ocher cause than the stimulus which inter-
est excites and the discoveries which the number
of minds directed to one object, and so stimulated,
are constantly producing. Of course, in these cir-
cumstances a vast amount of inquisitive research
and speculative energy is necessarily called into
action ; and although those who employ it are very
ignorant and very poor, and not very industrious,
they can make a profit where scientific knowledge,
300 " ROADS PAVED WITH GOLD."
unlimited capital, and well-directed division of la-
bour, confess themselves unable to compete with
advantage. This is, perhaps, one of the strongest
facts in favour of individual energy against asso-
ciated capital and its concomitant advantages, of
any I know.
I must not forget that in passing between the
two Csetaties, we observed a peasant carefully
scraping up the soil from the little path we fol-
lowed,* and depositing it in a basket beside him,
much in the same way as we see the children col-
lect manure on our high roads,- — but with this dif-
ference, that the Transylvanian obtained gold ready
made to his hand, while our own countrymen only
acquire a means of aiding industry in its acquisition.
I dare say everybody has heard of streets paved with
gold ; but I must confess I had always believed it
a romance ; here, however, it was a serious reality.
In fact, the road was formed of stones from the
nearest rock, which we already know contains gold,
and as it had been raining during the night, it was
no wonder that the water should have washed away
the lighter particles which had been crushed to dust
under the feet of the passers, and left the heavier
ore glittering in the sun behind.
After we had satisfied ourselves with admiration
at the extraordinary phenomena of the Csetatie,
and listened to the clattering of the five hundred
mills of Voros Patak, we again took to our horses
* Pliny describes nearly the same scene in his day.
THE RICH MINER. 301
and pursued a hilly road, which was to lead us to
the basaltic mountain. Our route lay over the
same kind of green mountains we had seen the
whole of the day, and was only varied by our stum-
bling every now and then on some strange little
mining settlement which had buried itself in a hid-
den nook, or perched itself on a mountain top, as
the object of its search might have dictated. We
met a fat and jolly-looking Wallack peasant in the
course of the morning, whom our guide pointed out
to us as possessing more gold than any count or
baron in the country. He was riding beside a
waggon drawn by bullocks, in which sat his servant
dressed just like himself. The guide could give us
no idea of the amount of his wealth, which he said
was so much that the man could not count it him-
self. The only approximation to a fixed sum we
could obtain, was, that he received a whole wag-
gon-load of ducats from the Karlsburg mint every
two months, in return for the gold he sent there.
Whatever may be the troubles riches bring in their
train, they certainly had not as yet affected our
Wallack, for he was one of the merriest-looking
peasants I ever saw.
After about a two hours' ride we emerged from a
wood of dark pines, and found ourselves in presence
of the Detonata (thunderbolt), a basaltic rock of
about two hundred feet in height, crowning the top
of a mountain ; and though exceedingly curious, far
less wonderful than we had been led to expect, or
302
THE DETONATA.
than those who had never seen anything of the kind
before believed it to be. It is composed of co-
lumns, some of which are nearly perpendicular and
others horizontal. I observed no less than five
different inclinations in these pillars. They are
most irregularly formed and much smaller than
those of Fingal's Cave, indeed, they can bear no
comparison with the latter. Some of these columns
have a slanting direction, and have been fancied
by the peasants to have some resemblance to a
fiddle, whence it is also called the Black Stone
Fiddle (Piatra Csityera Nyagra). The name Deto-
THE DETONATA. 303
nata, by which it is commonly known, is not un-
interesting, as it is accompanied by the belief that
this rock has been produced by some sudden con-
vulsion attended with the noise of thunder. It
must be remembered that this tradition is found
among the Dacians, the oldest inhabitants of the
country ; and if it can be supposed to have its
foundation in fact, I believe it would be the only
instance in which we have any evidence of the
production of a columnar basaltic rock, since this
globe has been inhabited by man.
While we were climbing the back of these rocks,
and Miklos was spreading out the contents of our
prog basket under the shade of the pines, the guide
had disappeard in search of a frozen spring near
the base of the mountain, in hopes of procuring
some ice to cool our wine. He returned, however,
empty-handed, for it had formed so compact a
mass that he could not detach any of it without a
hatchet. Our ride, however, had furnished us with
a good apology for such luxuries, and stretched out
on a soft bed of moss, we managed to do credit to
our meal even without iced wine. It was already
four o'clock before we could leave the Detonata,
and we had still another mine to visit and a long
journey before us ere we could reach Zelathna.
Our horses were refreshed, however, by their food
and rest, and we again mounted and pushed on.
There was nothing very remarkable in the mine
we visited. It belonged to a private company, who
304 MINERS' WAGES.
were just erecting one of those curious water en-
gines which are peculiar I believe to Hungary. It
consisted of a cylinder and piston, much like that
of a steam-engine, but instead of the piston being
moved by the expansive power of steam, it is pressed
down by the weight of a vertical column of water
which passes out at the bottom, where another
stream is admitted which forces the piston up again.
Its great advantage is in the vast power obtained
by it from a very small quantity of water. Of
course it can only be used where the fall is great.
There were three hundred men employed in this
mine. I have been told by the chief proprietor
that the pay of the Hauer (cutter), — the lowest
order of workmen, answering to our tut workers, —
who is paid by the piece, amounts to about six
or eight florins, c. m. (twelve or sixteen shillings)
per month. They rarely work more than four or
five days per week, and never more than eight
hours per day. The Sprenger (blaster), and Hut-
leute (smelters), have fixed wages, varying from
ten to twenty florins, c. m. (twenty to forty shil-
lings) per month. My informant adds, " the double
of this amount would not be too much if the steal-
ing could be prevented ; but as things exist at
present, that is impossible."
After a six hours1 ride through woods and over
mountains, at first illuminated by all the brilliancy of
an autumn sunset, and then varied by the cold tints
of the pale moon, we at last arrived at Zalathna;
GOLD-WASHING. 305
and having given orders for an early start to-
morrow, lay down to dream of gold mines and
golden pavements, and waggon -loads of ducats, and
I know not what beside.
Before I leave this curious district, however, and
with it all further reference to mining matters,
let me say a few words on the gold-washing, and
gold- washers of Transylvania.
In some parts of Hungary, and in almost every
part of Transylvania, but especially in that through
which our wanderings have lately conducted us,
a large quantity of gold is annually procured from
the sand deposited by the rivers and brooks-
There is scarcely a single river in Transylvania of
which the sands do not contain more or less gold,
but the most celebrated are the Aranyos (golden),
the Maros, the Strigy, the Koros, and the Szamos.
The gold is commonly found in the upper part
of these streams, before the sand becomes mixed
with mud from the richer lands of the valleys.
There can be no doubt that the gold is derived
from the decomposition of metalliferous rocks, from
the attrition of detached masses, and sometimes,
though more rarely, from the breaking up of a vein
of ore itself, by means of running water. As it is
mixed in very small quantities with other debris, it
becomes only worth the search where it has been
collected by the operation of natural causes in a
greater proportionate quantity than that in which
it originally existed — in short, only when nature
VOL. II. X
300 GOLD-WASHING.
has dressed and washed it. This occurs after a
flood, at the elbows, or bends of rivers, where
the water, surcharged with broken matter, which
its unusual force has enabled it to bring down,
flows slower and deposits the heavier particles,
carrying the lighter further on. In such spots the
gold-washers collect when the flood has abated ;
and taking up the sand in wooden shovels or scoops,
they move it about in a small quantity of water till
all but the metalliferous particles are washed away.
The gold occurs in various forms, from the most
complete dust to pieces of the size of a pigeon's
egg, though I need scarcely say the former is by
far the most common. I believe the greater part
of the gold obtained by the gold- washers is nearly
pure, indeed, I am not aware that they attempt
to gather it when mixed with other matter. I
have no means of ascertaining the amount of gold
washed in Transylvania. In the Banat I have
seen it stated, that from 1813 to 1818, the pro-
ceeds amounted to two thousand one hundred and
thirty-eight ducats.
This branch of industry is almost entirely in the
hands of the gipsies. The Government grants a
gipsy band the privilege of washing the sands of
a certain brook, on condition of their paying a
yearly rent, which is never less than three ducats
in pure gold per head for every washer. A gipsy
judge, or captain, settles this matter with the
Government, and is answerable for the rest of
PROFESSOR SZASZ. 307
the tribe from whom he collects the whole of
their earnings, and, after paying the tribute, re-
divides it.
In returning to Klausenburg, we remained some-
time at Nagy Enyed, where there is a large Pro-
testant college, to visit Professor Szasz, one of the
most distinguised men in Transylvania, both in a
literary and political point of view. Elected by
the citizens of Enyed, to represent them at the Diet,
Professor Szasz, in spite of the prejudice felt by the
aristocracy at this intrusion of a literary parvenu
within their circle, gained so great a power by the
accuracy and extent of his knowledge, so great an
influence by the simplicity and uprightness of his
character, and so willing an auditory from the
brilliancy of his eloquence and the logical correct-
ness of his arguments, that he soon became one
of the most important leaders of the moderate
opposition. Moderate as he was, however, Professor
Szasz has not escaped the anger of the Govern-
ment ; and he, too, is under trial, on some trumpery
charges, evidently got up purely to annoy and in-
timidate him. We found the Professor at his books
in a braided military-looking coat, and sporting a
pair of very imposing mustaches. His dress, how-
ever, was only the academical costume of Enyed,
where both students and professors wear the na-
tional uniform. As for the mustaches, of late years
all but the clergy have worn them ; and I should
not be surprised if they did so too before long.
x 2
308 COLLEGE OF ENYED.
After some conversation, in which the Professor
explained to us the history and present state of
the college of Enyed, he kindly offered to show us
over it.
It appears to have been originally founded at
Karlsburg, by Bethlen Gabor, for the education of
the members of the Reformed Church, and to have
been endowed by him with very considerable estates.
It was afterwards removed to Enyed, on the destruc-
tion of Karlsburg, by Apafy. During a period of
temporary distress — I forget the exact time — when
the college was in danger of perishing from the
want of funds, a deputation was sent over by the
Protestants of Transylvania, to request pecuniary
aid from their brethren in England. The call was
generously answered, and a fund was formed, which
is still deposited in the Bank of England, and from
which the college of Enyed receives an annual re-
venue of 1,000/. It is wonderful what a feeling of
friendship, what a sentiment of brotherhood with
England, this gift, though now completely forgotten
among us, still maintains among the Transylvanian
Protestants. The revenue derived from this source
has been expended for some years past on the erec-
tion of a range of new buildings for the residence of
the students, which, when finished, will make a very
respectable appearance.
There are in all about one thousand students,
of whom three hundred are Togati, or DcaTc; the
rest, mere children. The course of study is divided
COLLEGE OF ENYED. 309
into three periods. The first is so arranged, that
at the end of it those who are intended for the
smaller trades shall have acquired a sufficient edu-
cation to fit them for their avocations, while it has
served also as a foundation for a more extended
course of education to the others. It includes re-
ligion, writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, geography,
a little history, particularly that of their own coun-
try, with some notices of natural history, drawing,
and singing.
The next division includes three more years, and
is dedicated, in addition to a further developement
of the preceding subjects, to Latin, Greek, and
German; mathematics, belles lettres, rhetoric, and
logic.
After these six years' preliminary study, the
scholar becomes a Deak, and enters on what may
be called a regular academical course, which lasts
six years more. He has now, too, the privilege of
becoming a tutor to the younger scholars. The
first four years he must study mathematics, physics,
chemistry, natural history, metaphysics, logic, aesthe-
tics, natural law, ethics, physiology, history, laws
and constitution of Transylvania, with its statistics,
politics, &c. &c. The last two years, the student
is allowed to choose his own course of study, — I
presume, to enable him to perfect himself in any
speciality to which he may choose to dedicate him-
self. It is during this period, that the divinity
students take their Hebrew and theology courses.
310 COLLEGE OF ENYED.
To teach all this knowledge, there are only eight
professors, none of whom have more than 50/. a
year. I need scarcely say, that there must be
much that is very superficial, and, therefore,
nearly useless, in a course of so much pretension,
when the means are so slight for rendering it
efficient.
Several students commonly live in the same
room. In the junior classes, they pay some very
small sum, I think a fee of four-shillings, on en-
tering a new class; in the higher, the instruction
is not only gratis, but they even receive assistance
from the funds of the college.*
Professor Szasz introduced us to one of his col-
leagues, Professor Herepei, who enjoys the highest
reputation for pulpit eloquence of any clergyman of
the Reformed Church in Transylvania. We had
proposed to visit the library and museum, but the
curator was out of the way, and the key nowhere
to be found. Neither the one nor the other is
said to be in a very flourishing condition. The
students and professors come together here much
more than with us. They have a club, or casino,
in the town, where they meet, and smoke, and
read the journals together, without stiffness or
restraint.
* Besides Enyed, the Reformed Church in Transylvania has
colleges in Klausenburg, Maros V£sarhely and Udvarhely, and
Gymnasia in Zilah, Szaszvaros, Decs, Kezdi Vasarhely, Thorda,
and Salzburg.
COLLEGE OF ENYED. 311
For general education, I believe Enyed stands
higher than any other college in Transylvania. Its
pupils are commonly supposed to receive a strong-
bias towards Liberalism during their academical
residence. It is on this account, that Government
has been making some attempts to interfere with
the system of education among the Protestants ;
but it has been resisted as illegal by the Consistory,
and, I believe, with success.
312 THE SZEKLERS.
CHAPTER X.
THE SZEKLERS AND THE SZEKLER-LAND.
The Szeklers — their ancient Rights and modern Position. — The
Mezoseg. — Maros Vasarhely. — Chancellor Teleki and his
Library. — A Szekler Inn. — The Szekler Character. — Salt
Rocks at Szovata. — The Cholera and the spare Bed.—
Miseria cum aceto. — Glories of Grock. — Salt-Mines of Parayd.
— Udvarhely. — St. Pal. — Excursion to Almas. — Supersti-
tion. — The Cavern. — Sepsi St. Gyorgy. — Kesdi Vasarhely.
— The French Brewer. — The Szekler Schools. — Szekler
Hospitality. —The Budos.— The Harom-Szek.
WHEN next we left Klausenburg, it was to visit
the east and south of Transylvania, two districts
inhabited by different nations and governed by dif-
ferent laws from those in which we had hitherto
sojourned.
I have already said that the Szeklers were found
by the Magyars in the country which they now oc-
cupy on their first entrance, and on account of simi-
larity of language and origin, were granted favours
refused to the original inhabitants of the country.
They were allowed the full enjoyment of their free-
dom on condition of defending the eastern frontier.
Even from this early period the Szeklers claim to
THE SZEKLERS. 313
have been all equal, all free, all noble ; a privileged
class and a servile class were alike unknown — the
only difference among the richer of them being de-
rived from the number of men each could bring into
the field, — among the poorer, from the circumstance
of their serving on horseback or on foot. Changes,
however, have crept in amongst them in the lapse
of so many centuries. The richer and more power-
ful have gradually introduced on their own estates
the system in operation in the rest of Transylvania,
and the peasant and the seigneur are now found in
the Szekler-land as elsewhere. Titles too, and let-
ters of nobility have been freely scattered through
the country, and have gradually cast a slur on those
who possess them not. Taxation also, and the
forcible introduction of the border system, instead
of the desultory service of former times, have made
great changes in the position of the Szeklers. As
almost all these changes, however, have been intro-
duced without the consent of the people, and often
by the employment of open force, they are still re-
garded as illegal by the Szeklers, who are conse-
quently among the most discontented of any portion
of the Transylvanians. It would be absurd in me
to enter further into the question of their laws
and institutions, for even the most learned among
themselves, confess that there is so much confusion
in them, that even they cannot make them out.
This I know, that every Szekler claims to be a
noble born, and declares that if he had his right
314 THE SZEKLERS.
he should neither pay taxes nor serve but when
an insurrection of the whole nobility of the country
took place. I know also that, in fact, there are
among them Counts and Barons who call them-
selves magnates, nobles by letters patent, and free
Szeklers without letters, besides borderers and pea-
sants, and that the free Szeklers and nobles, who
have not more than two peasants, pay taxes, just
like the peasants, though in other respects they
have rights like the nobles.
All these circumstances were not known to us
when we set out on this expedition. Every Hun-
garian you speak to is sure to tell you that the
Szeklers are all noble, and you consequently ex-
pect to find a whole nation with equal rights and
privileges, among which freedom from seigneurial
oppression, and from government taxation, are both
alike included. This was the opinion we were led
to form, and of course our curiosity was propor-
tionately raised to observe their influence on the
state of the people. It was only when we saw, how
much matters seemed to be managed here as in
other parts of the country, that we got to the real
state of the case, and discovered that though the
Szeklers may have been once all equal and noble,
and though they still lay claim to all manner of
rights and privileges, they have not in reality
enjoyed them, for I know not how many centuries.
Our route lay through one of the most curious
parts of Transylvania, the Mezoseg. This is a
THE MEZOSJta. 315
district of considerable extent, characterized by the
fertility of its soil, and the extreme misery of its
inhabitants. The people are mostly Wallacks, and
appear worse clothed, worse lodged, and more un-
civilized than the_mhabitants ofjany other part of
the country. The aspect of the Mesoseg is not less
curious than the state of its population. It is the
only hilly country I ever saw without a single point
of picturesque beauty. As we ascended one hill,
and descended another, during a long day's drive,
the self-same prospect of brown sun-burnt pasture,
unbroken by trees or water, was ever before us. In
so untempting a land, country-houses are extremely
rare ; indeed, the Mezos6g seems to have been alto-
gether a forgotten district, both by nature and man.
It is very likely, however, to make itself better
known before long. Its extensive pastures begin
to acquire a value, now that the growth of Me-
rino wool has been introduced, and the coal, of
which traces have been found in several places,
will probably produce a rich reward to whomsoever
shall work it with skill and prudence.
We reached Maros Vasarhely, the capital of the
Szekler-land, about twelve o'clock on the second
morning, and proceeded at once to call on Pro-
fessor Dosa, a friend of Baron W 's, our com-
panion in this journey, who politely offered to
show us the town. Although there is nothing very
imposing in the wide streets and small houses,
of which Maros Vasarhely is mostly composed, it
316
MAROS VASARHELY.
is rather an important place, and, in winter, many
of the gentry in the neighbourhood take up their
residence within it. Moreover, both Protestants
and Catholics have colleges here ; the Protestant
contains eight hundred, the Catholic three hun-
dred scholars, and these institutions give something
of a literary air to its society. Maros Vasarhely
is also the seat of the highest legal tribunal in
Transylvania, the Royal table, and it is in conse-
quence the great law school of the country. Almost
all the young nobles who desire to take any part in
public business, as well as all the lawyers, after hav-
ing finished the regular course of study, think it
necessary, under the name of Juraten, to pass a year
or two here in reading law and attending the court.
The great pride of the town is the fine library of
the Telekis, founded by the Chancellor Teleki, and
left to his family on the condition of its being
always open to the public. It contains about eighty
thousand volumes, which are placed in a very hand-
some building, and kept in excellent order. A
reading-room is attached, which is always open,
where books are supplied to any one who de-
mands them. There are funds for its support, and
the family still continue to add to it as far as they
are able. It is most rich in choice editions of the
Latin and Greek classics. These works were the
favourite studies of the Chancellor himself, who
was a man of very extensive learning. What ren-
ders this the more remarkable is, the fact of his
MAROS VA'SARHELY. 317
laving entirely acquired it after the age of twenty,
and that too, during the little leisure afforded him
from public business. Among the bibliographical
curiosities pointed out to us, was an illuminated
Latin Bible, which was said to be written on a
vegetable leaf. The substance employed was cer-
tainly not papyrus ; I should have taken it for very
fine vellum. There was also a MS. copy of a work
by Servetus, which we were told was unpublished,
though, on turning over the fly-leaf, we found a quo-
tation from an edition of the same work printed
in London. There was a beautiful MS. of Tacitus
from the library of Mathias Corvinus, and splendidly
bound, as indeed the whole of that library was.
We were shown the Casino, which seems a
flourishing and well-conducted establishment. It
numbers two hundred members. As many of the
students are too poor to become subscribers to it,
and as it is the wish of the professors to give as
many as possible an opportunity of becoming ac-
quainted with the utility and conduct of such in-
stitutions, free admissions are granted to six of
them every month, and such as choose to avail
themselves of it, take it in rotation.
In showing us the old Gothic church, which oc-
cupies the centre of the former fortress, Professor
Dosa observed that it was very nearly being de-
stroyed during the reign of Maria Theresa, because
the Protestants were not then allowed to repair
their churches ; and it was not till Joseph II. broke
318 A SZEKLER INN.
down the force of the bigots that the Vasarhely
Protestants were permitted to new - roof their
church.
The next day we passed through a hilly and
rather pretty country, with many villages, differing
in no respect from hundreds we had seen elsewhere,
till we arrived at St. Gyorgy, a village on the
Kis Kiikiillo — the small Kokel, — a river we have
before mentioned, as celebrated for its wines. We
had been told we should find an inn here, and be
able to bait our horses, and get a dinner for our-
selves. It was true enough, an inn was found,
but the poor landlady declared she had nothing to
give us but dry bread, and what was still worse,
she had not any corn for our horses. The servants,
nevertheless, proceeded to take the horses out of
the carriages, in spite of this bad prospect, and on
my inquiring what was the use of stopping at a
place where neither man nor horse could find his
profit, they only smiled, and said they would try
if something could not be done. At one end of
the village there was a large manor-house, and
the coachman at once made for that, sure there
would be corn there, and hoping that the steward
would sell them what they wanted. In coming
along too, Miklos had fixed his eyes on some hens
which were amusing themselves on the high road,
and he soon returned from his forage, bringing with
him both the hens and their eggs. Our servants
were fortunately good cooks, and while one set to
THE SZEKLERS.
319
work to compose an omelette, the other produced
an egg soup and a couple of roast fowls. There
is certainly nothing like having a servant who
knows the work he may have to turn his hand
to : I wonder how a well-behaved English valet
would have got us out of our difficulty !
The plan we had laid down for ourselves in
traversing the Szekler-land, was to visit some salt-
mines at Szovata, pass through Udvarhely, to an
estate of our friend's ; from thence, make an ex-
cursion to visit a celebrated cave in the neighbour-
hood, and so pass on into the Saxon-land, visiting
its two chief towns, Kronstadt and Hermanstadt,
and then return to Klausenburg.
In pursuit of this plan, we followed the little
Kukiillo nearly to its source, along a very beau-
tiful valley, highly cultivated, and, though naturally
far from rich, bearing good crops. The Szeklers
inhabit a mountainous country, and are conse-
quently poor ; but it was easy to see they are far
more industrious than any of the Transylvanians
we had before visited. From all I heard of their
character, they seem a good deal to resemble the
Scotch. The same pride and poverty, the same
industry and enterprise, and if they are not belied,
the same sharp regard to their own interests. They
speak a dialect of the Magyar, which differs but
slightly from that used in other parts of the coun-
try, except in the peculiar sing-song intonation in
which it is uttered. Like most mountaineers, they
320 SZOVATA.
are but little distinguished for polished and refined
manners; even the wealthier are commonly re-
markable for a greater rudeness in their bearing
than is seen in other parts of the country. This
is more than made up, however, by a greater
degree of information, and by a firm adherence
to their political principles. Like the Scotch, they
seem to have advanced in education to an extra-
ordinary degree, so that there are few villages
without their schools, few of the humblest Szeklers
who cannot read and write. They are of various
religions, and each sect is said to be strongly
attached to its own.* The Unitarians are in greater
proportion here than in any other part of the
country ; they have about one hundred churches in
the Szekler-land. Excepting the Jews and Greeks,
all religions enjoy equal rights.
We reached Szovata towards evening, and, as
there was no possibility of lodging there for the
night, we made the best haste we could to find a
guide, and see what was to be seen before dark.
This was no such easy matter, however; the cholera
had just set in, and its first victim had been one
of the chief men of the village. His funeral had
taken place the day we arrived ; and as it is a cus-
tom of the Szeklers to get especially drunk on these
occasions, to dissipate their grief, we found nearly
the whole village as glorious in liquor as their
* Among the Catholics are reckoned the members of the
Armenian Catholic, and Greek Catholic churches.
SALT ROCKS. 321
friend could be in sanctity. By some chance, one
sober man was found at last, and we followed him
beyond the village in the direction of a small green
hill, which we could perceive at some distance.
Judge of our surprise, as we drew nearer, to see
before us a real rock of salt ! Yes, our green hill
was pure rock salt, when seen near, as white as
snow, but covered at the top and in many places
on the sides by a layer of clay, on which grass and
trees grew abundantly. Before arriving at the hill
itself, we had to cross a little brook which pre-
sented a most curious appearance, — its banks, and
the numerous stones which stand out from its shal-
low bed, are all encrusted with crystals of salt, and
that, too, so exactly in the form of hoar frost, that,
in spite of the warm rays of an autumn sunset, I
could scarce persuade myself they were not so till
I had tasted them. At this point, a guard, armed
with a musket, met us, and accompanied us as long
we remained near. In fact, guards surround the
whole of the hill, to prevent the peasants from
stealing the salt. This salt-bed, which extends to a
considerable distance, is not worked for salt at all ;
what is required for its immediate neighbourhood,
is obtained from Parayd, a few miles off. In spite
of all the guards, however, stealing goes on to a
considerable extent ; indeed, one of the first ne-
cessaries of life, so costly if bought, and here in
such abundance, and to be had for the trouble of
picking up, must offer too strong a temptation for
VOL. ii. Y
322 SALT ROCKS.
the poor man to withstand. Probably, too, the
guards themselves are the greatest robbers. There
seems to be no end to the quantity of salt in this
neighbourhood ; in many places, the peasant has
only to scrape away the dirt of his cottage floor
to obtain salt beneath it. It is said, that in Tran-
sylvania alone, there is sufficient salt to supply all
Europe for some thousand years !
As we got nearer, we found the herbage, and
the crops of Indian corn, looking as well on the
salt rock as on any other soil ; nor could we observe
any difference in the plants here and in the neigh-
bourhood. We examined several of the cliffs, which
were very beautiful. In some, the rain has formed
channels and furrows, which again have given rise
to pinnacles, covered with bright crystals of salt,
something like Gothic minarets in miniature. On
the other side, we were told, the cliffs are much
higher and finer; but it was at least three miles
round, and it was already too dark to allow us to
undertake the journey. We made a stout resolu-
tion to return the next day, and get a sketch of
these wonderful cliffs, but it turned out so wet,
that it was impossible.
When we got back to the village, and the tipsy
gentry had learned our friend's name, — one to
which all Szekler-land is deeply attached, — it was
with the utmost difficulty we could get away.
The dead man's house, as the best in the village,
was placed at our disposal, and we were almost
SZEKLER COMFORT. 323
forced to accept his spare bed by these hospitable
friends.
I really do not know what notion the inhabitants
of the Szekler-land mean to express by the words,
" a comfortable inn ; " but I am quite sure it is
something very different from what all the rest
of the world mean. Twice, to-day, have we found
ourselves wofully mistaken in our calculations in
consequence; — this morning, we found a comfort-
able inn meant an empty room, and nothing to
eat ; to-night, it seemed to mean no room and
nothing to eat either ! Everybody had agreed, that
at Parayd we should be splendidly accommodated,
and so we declined the dead man's bed and pushed
on to this same Parayd with the greatest confi-
dence. Alas ! we were doomed to be disappointed.
There was only one spare room, and a little closet ;
and no sooner had we alighted, than they told us
the room was taken, and nothing but the closet
could we have. Seated at a table, in one corner,
we found the happy occupant of the room, just
finishing, as we supposed, his supper, with bread
and ewe-milk cheese. After the first salutations,
the stranger who turned out to be an old officer of
the Szekler Borderers, politely offered us the larger
room, saying, the closet would be sufficient to con-
tain him ; but, when he heard us ask for supper, the
old gentleman shook his head, and pointing to
the cheese and bread, and a bottle of pale sour-
looking wine, exclaimed, despondingly, miseria cum
T 2
324 SZEKLER HABITS.
aceto ! and nothing else to be had ! — So much for a
comfortable inn in the Szeklerland.
I am afraid that, with all their good qualities, the
Szeklers are rather behindhand in the comforts —
perhaps they call them superfluous luxuries — of
other parts of Europe. Even in their own houses,
the gentry show but little taste for comfort or clean-
liness. In many cases, this may be attributable to
poverty — then I have not a word to say ; but in
others, I have seen an admixture of tawdry splen-
dour with squalid neglect, which presented a con-
trast highly ridiculous. We avoided private houses
as much as possible, for W had just as great a
dislike as we had to ask for hospitality from those
he did not know; and, besides, so many Szeklers
speak only Magyar, that we could have obtained
little, either of amusement or instruction, from the
intercourse ; but we were sometimes driven to it
in spite of ourselves, and I will mention the result
of one such instance. We were introduced into
a large handsome house, where the drawing-room
and boudoir were filled with fashionable modern
furniture, where the lady, who reigned over them,
was handsomely, not to say showily, dressed, and
where the whole establishment manifested a pre-
tension to style, rarely seen in these mountains.
When we retired to our bed-rooms, however, we
got a little behind the scenes, and found the play
by no means so imposing. Half-a-dozen panes in
the windows were broken ; the furniture was of the
SZEKLER COMFORT. 325
shabbiest description; the floor filthy to the last
degree ; and, as for the beds, it was too evident
to admit of a question that the linen on them had
not been refreshed for many a good day. W
was so excessively disgusted, and so angry that such
a circumstance should have occurred before stran-
gers, that I had the greatest possible difficulty to
prevent him ordering out the carriages arid leaving
the house immediately. After soothing him down,
however, to a reasonable pitch, he contented him-
self with directing all the filthy things to be thrown
out of the room, and our own bed linen, to
be arranged by our servants in their place; nor
was it till next morning that we could make him
promise to leave the place without abusing our host
for his negligent hospitality. But to return to
Parayd.
We were fortunately persons not very easily dis-
pirited ; and we accordingly devoured the black
bread and turpentine cheese — for they wrap it in
the bark of the pine to give it a turpentine flavour
— with excellent appetite ; and it having entered
into Miklos's prolific brain, that the common spirit
of the country, if mixed with sugar and hot water,
might make something like what the English sailors
had taught him to call grock, he came in grinning
at this happy thought with a large jug of a most
well-smelling liquid compounded on these princi-
ples, which, with the aid of our Turkish pipes, made
us almost think our Szekler inn was comfortable.
326 SALT-MINES.
Iri the mean time, the servants had transported
the greater part of a haystack into the room, and
the whole floor was covered over with a thick layer
of hay ; our carriage cushions and our bed-clothes
were disposed in the best fashion to serve for beds ;
and before our pipes were finished, we had not only
the consolation of having supped, but had the pro-
spect of a good night's rest before us. Nothing like
good temper, good health, and a servant that knows
how to make grock !
The next morning we visited some of the salt-
mines, which contained nothing sufficiently remark-
able to detain us. They work these mines only in
winter, and that but to a very small extent. Those
of Maros Ujvar, on the banks of the Maros, are so
much more conveniently situated for transporting
the salt, that these are only used to supply the im-
mediate neighbourhood. This salt-bed is said to be
of even greater extent that that of Szovata, though
it generally lies deeper. Instead of the bright white
colour we had observed yesterday, the salt was here
of a dark green hue. Even here, where the whole
soil seems to be salt, we were assured that it was
often smuggled from Moldavia, and sold in the
interior of the country.
At every step we took, the cholera now met us.
One of our horses had cast a shoe, and we had to
wait some hours before we could get it replaced,
for the blacksmith's wife was just taken ill, and he
could not be prevailed upon to leave her till she
UDVARHELY. 327
felt better. Nor were these the worst inconveni-
ences ; some of our own party had felt far from well
this morning, and we were naturally rendered ex-
ceedingly anxious lest the ailment should turn out
to be cholera. Though no believers in contagion,
we were aware that whatever were the causes pro-
ducing the disease, we were just as much exposed
to them as the inhabitants of the country could be,
and besides, the very idea of travelling for pleasure
where death seemed hovering round our every step
was so painful that we hastened on more quickly
than we otherwise should have done through this
beautiful country.*
At Udvarhely, one of the principal towns of the
Szekler-land, we had intended to remain the
next night, but the inn was so very miserable, and
the whole place so far from attractive, that we
determined, after baiting our horses, to try if we
could not reach St. Pal, a village some fifteen miles
further, where W had a house and small estate.
Not that Udvarhely is without interest. As we
descended the long hill at the foot of which it lies,
its three large churches with their double spires,
* To those who believe in the antiseptic powers of cer-
tain substances and their utility in preventing the spread of
epidemic diseases, it may afford matter for reflection, that
here, where everything, from the corn you eat to the water
you wash in, perhaps the very air you breathe, is impregnated
with salt — one of the strongest antiseptics — the cholera raged
with as much violence as in the poisoned alleys of a great
city.
328 UDVARHELY.
its ruined castle, its large white college and hand-
some Town-house, had led us to expect great things ;
but then the inn with its dirty room, its unglazed
windows, and its beds of dingy hue, put us out of
conceit with all the rest. While our horses were'
baiting W took us to call on an electioneering
friend of his, a merry little radical grocer, one of
those men who love good dinners and long speeches
— the latter his own, and the former his friends1.
The little grocer took us up to the castle, once
one of the strongest places in the land, and which
had often been sharply contested between the Im-
perial and Transylvanian forces. We reached St.
Pal somewhere about midnight, and though the
house was undergoing repairs and was inhabited
only by some workmen, we were soon furnished
with quarters better than we had met with since
we had left Klausenburg.
We remained a couple of days at St. Pal, in part
that W might arrange some matters of busi-
ness with his steward, in part to rest our horses.
The first was spent in snipe-shooting in a salt marsh
just below the village, for here, too, we were still in
the country of salt. Though no salt-bed is seen,
the brook, the springs, the marsh, and even the
herbage are all strongly impregnated with salt.
We were obliged to send some miles off to obtain
fresh water, for to us the salt water was intoler-
able, though from habit the people of the country
drink it without injury.
HOMAROD ALMAS. 329
For the next day we had engaged the little
grocer of Udvarhely to show us a cave which was at
some distance, and he accordingly arrived by good
time in the morning with a supply of his own
torches, and of his neighbours' mountain ponies, to
show us the wonders of Almas. As it was some
distance from, St. Pal, two peasants were sent off
early in the morning with a waggon and provisions,
and we followed at our leisure, a goodly cavalcade,
consisting of the grocer, the clergyman, the steward,
our three selves and one or two servants — the latter
attending us for no other purpose that I could
divine, save to fill and light the pipes. Our ride
led us through a country of mountains and woods,
sometimes, though rarely, varied by a well-cultivated
valley affording subsistence to some neighbouring
village. A village, Homarod Almas, through which
we passed, was one of the largest and most flourish-
ing we had met with in Transylvania. The situ-
ation of this place one would have thought as
healthy as possible ; the country round it was fruit-
ful and lovely as a garden, the inhabitants were
evidently well off, and the houses large and airy,
yet here the cholera was raging more fiercely than
in any other place we had yet visited. The grave-
yard seemed to have been fresh ploughed up, so
completely was it covered with new-made graves,
and several were standing open for occupants
already prepared to fill them.
As we left the village, we saw a mark of super-
330 SZEKLER SUPERSTITION.
stition which we should not have expected where
education is said to be generally diffused. It was a
small piece of coarse linen cloth cut into the shape
of a pair of trowsers, and suspended over the middle
of the road by a string attached to a tree on either
side. The peasants believe that in the Cave of
Almas which we were about to visit, two fairies are
imprisoned in a state of nudity, and that they weep
and wail their unhappy captivity without being
able to escape. Their cries are said to be often
heard, when the wind is high, proceeding from the
dark valley of the Almas, and it is to the malice
of these imprisoned fairies that the peasants attri-
bute the visitation of the cholera. It appears that
the received method of propitiating these gentry is
to offer them clothing, and accordingly the trowsers
at this end of the village, and a shirt exhibited in
a similar manner at the other, were intended to
appease them, let them come which road they would.
This was all I could learn of the matter from the
steward, and I am still not very sure that it is
correct, for he was much more anxious to assure me
that he knew it was all nonsense and that he did
not believe in such ignorant superstitions, than to
satisfy my curiosity on the matter.
On a green hill overlooking a deep valley, — or
rather cleft in the rocks, for it is much deeper than
it is wide, — we found the provision waggon already
arrived, a large fire lighted, and preparations for
cooking in a state of progress. Here we were to
VALLEY OF ALMAS.
331
leave our horses in the care of the peasants. Cling-
ing to the trees which cover its sides, we reached the
bottom of the valley, which is occupied by a brook :
tins brook a little farther on is seen to enter an open-
ing in the base of a cliff, and disappear. It is said
to come out again on the other side, at some miles'
distance. It, was a beautiful scene we had now
before us; the high steep rocks of limestone, the
hanging woods, the little stream, and its stony bed,
;
332 VALLEY OF ALMAS.
were all striking, and the addition of the dark
mouths of three or four huge caverns gaping at us
on either side, gave it a character of mysterious
beauty to which it would have been strange had
not the fancies of the peasants attached a legend.
The sorrows of the poor imprisoned fairies would
easily find voices here when the winds raged
through these narrow passages.
Leaving the smaller caverns, which we were
told were of little depth, we stumbled along the
stony path to the further end of the valley. On
our road we put up a csdszdr maddr (gelinotte), a
kind of grouse,* very common in the mountains
of Transylvania. It was so tame that it did not
fly more than a few yards, and continued running
on at a short distance before us, apparently without
the slightest fear. Man is still almost a stranger
here.
The mouth of the great cavern is at a considerable
height above the bottom of the valley, and can only
be reached by means of wooden steps, which some
former visitors have had made for the purpose. It
is half closed by a thick wall, now partly broken, but
which has evidently been built as a defence from
enemies. It is said to have been used by the
Szeklers as a retreat during the insurrection of
* The black-cock is also found in this country, and I suspect
the cock of the woods too ; for they frequently speak of a wild
peacock (uad pdva), to which they attribute much the same
habits and appearance as characterise the cock of the woods.
CAVERN OF ALMAS. 333
the Wallacks under Hora and Kloska, but Tran-
sylvania has known so many periods when a place
of refuge was required for the peaceable citizen,
from the cruelty of savage enemies both domestic
and foreign, that it is more difficult to say when
it may not have been so used, than when it was.
This part of the country, from its frontier position^
was peculiarly subject to foreign incursions, and
when they were made by such nations as the
Tartars and Turks, — they first murdered all they
could lay hold on, and the second spared only to
drive away into captivity,* — it is no wonder a
retreat of this kind should have been well de-
fended. Even our friend's house at St. Pal, though
never intended as a place of defence, bears marks
of precaution attributable to a similar cause. The
stables are constructed below the house itself, and
can be entered by a secret door and winding stair-
case, from a room above, so that if the house was
attacked by a marauding party in front, the family
would have time to mount their horses and escape
by a lower room, which opens into the fields on the
other side, ere the oak doors and well-stanchioned
* Bethlen Gabor obtained his election to the throne of Tran-
sylvania, with the aid of some Turkish troops ; not that they
were required to fight, but their presence gave confidence to the
party of Bethlen, and enabled them to depose the weak Bathori
Gabor without a struggle. Notwithstanding the peaceable cha-
racter of the expedition, the Turks did not retire with less than
eighty thousand Transylvanian prisoners, of whom they made
slaves.
334 CAVERN OF ALMAS.
windows in the front were forced by the attack-
ing party.
The entrance to the cavern, which we had now
gained, is a vast hall covered with a noble arched
roof, and opening on every side to dark passages,
which lead into the interior of the mountain.
After we had carefully studied a plan of the
cavern, lighted our torches, and arranged the or-
der of the procession, the little grocer of Ud-
varhely, — no peasant guide could be found to
undertake it, — put himself at our head and led
the way. In faith it was no easy matter to
choose the right road, for there were so many
openings, and it was so very easy to lose the direc-
tion in such a position, that it required all the
little grocer's memory and experience to keep us
from straying. By the road we took, the cavern
seemed to penetrate the mountain to about the dis-
tance of an English mile, sometimes in the form
of large chambers, sometimes of narrow passages,
through which one can scarcely creep. Some of
these chambers are high, and ornamented with
small stalactites. In one a large mass of rock cor-
rugated like a huge wart, hangs from the roof to
within a yard of the floor without touching it.
The only difficulty we experienced, except that
of finding our way, was in passing a wet bog —
if a mass of soft lime, of about the consistence of
mortar can be so called — which extended for some
twenty yards' distance.
CAVERN OF ALMAS. 335
At the very end of the cavern, we had been told
there was a vein containing precious stones in great
abundance, and it was therefore with no small dis-
appointment we found nothing but a mud-lined
chamber, from which there was no exit save by a
small hole, which it seemed impossible for any of
us to pass through ! However, the little grocer
was not to be balked ; he declared the precious
stones must be on the other side the hole, and he
accordingly laid himself down, and by dint of work-
ing away something like a worm when it is return-
ing to the earth, he at last disappeared, and then
assuring us that he had come to the precious stones,
he made all of us so eager to share the prize, that
we too squeezed ourselves through. Here we
found an extraordinary formation enough. A slit
in the rock, of about a yard in width, had been
filled up by a quantity of very fine gravel, composed
for the most part, of rounded stones of about the
size of peas, generally highly polished, and often
of considerable beauty. I really forget now all
the various mineral species to which these pebbles
have been found to belong, but I know there were
upwards of a dozen of the secondary precious stones,
among which were jaspers, cornelians, and agates.
Geologically, I think, the age of this vein might
probably be fixed pretty accurately. That its con-
tents have been deposited by running water, their
nature and appearance place beyond a doubt, and
as they are now at least a hundred feet above
336 CAVERN OF ALMAS.
the surface of the valley, it must have been be-
fore the valley was formed, and when the water
rolled over the upper surface of the mountain a
considerable height above. The gravel is now
so compact, that it required a hammer to separate
any portions of it. We were glad to leave this
part of the cavern as quickly as we could, for the
air became so confined, that it was scarcely pos-
sible to breathe. We had still only investigated
one part of this cavern. Another of nearly equal
extent lay above this, and was said to open on
the other side of the mountain. The entrance,
however, could only be reached by the aid of a
ladder, and as our curiosity was pretty well satis-
fied we returned without making any further in-
vestigation.
The peasants had got us a good dinner ready by
our return, and we were all well inclined to do
justice to their cookery. A little before dark, we
again mounted our rozinantes, and made the best of
our way back to St. Pal.
Our next point was Keszdi Vasarhely,* but
though it lay nearly direct east of St. Pal, we were
obliged to make a considerable detour to the south
to avoid a chain of mountains which lay between
the two places. My notes of this day contain little
worthy of remark, save that we could get nothing
for dinner except a few eggs; and that at night
* Vdsdr, market ; hely, place ; a name common to many places
in this part of Transylvania.
THE CREATURE COMFORTS. 337
we were obliged to sleep on tables and chairs,
and content ourselves with a supper of six small
trout, which the landlord went out and caught for
the occasion. I am really ashamed to refer so
constantly to the subject of the creature comforts ;
but I believe it is best to do so, as it perhaps gives
the reader almost as good an idea of the circum-
stances of the country we were travelling through,
as a more elaborate description would do. What,
for instance, could strike the stranger more forcibly
than an occurrence which took place the very next
day ? Soon after we had started, we passed through
a small village, at which we had no intention of
stopping, where Miklos's eye fell on the carcass of
a fresh-slaughtered calf, hung up in a peasant's
house. Jumping down, he at once made off to
this unaccustomed sight, and did not return till
he had secured a good-looking lump of veal, as a
provision against dinner-time.
Before arriving at Foldvar, — the place of the
six fishes, — we felt a change in the weather, which
obliged us to have recourse to our furs. The
cause of it was sufficiently explained in the morn-
ing. Though we were only in the middle of Sep
tember, a considerable fall of snow had taken place
in the mountains, and their white peaks now glit-
tering in the sun, contrasted strongly with the
yellow corn-fields and green meadows in the fore-
ground of the picture.
At Sepsi St. Gyb'rgy, where we stopped before
VOL. II. Z
338 SEPSI ST. GYORGY.
mid-day to get the above-mentioned lump of veal
converted into an eatable form, we found, instead
of the rude villages we had hitherto seen, a smart
little town with handsome houses, and large public
buildings, apparently very foreign to the position
in which they existed. Sepsi St. Gyorgy, however,
is the head-quarters of the Szekler border Hussars,
and, consequently, the residence of the staff. One
of the large buildings is dedicated to the educa-
tion of the children of the Hussars, and is said
to be one of the most flourishing schools in the
country.
Before evening, we got on to Keszdi Vasarhely ;
and though we were told there was no inn, we
found very good quarters in the house of a French
brewer, who had married an Hungarian wife, and
set up his tent here for life. He was a good-
tempered little fellow; seemed delighted to re-
ceive us into his house, and promised us a sup-
per which should amply compensate for our late
fastings. Of course he took us over his whole
premises of which he was very proud, as indeed
he had good reason to be, for his brewhouse, and
all its apparatus, though on a small scale, were
in excellent order. He complains sadly of his
neighbours doing all they can to injure him, from
jealousy of his foreign extraction ; and I can
readily believe him, for it is a theory of all
Hungarians, that every farthing gained in Hun-
gary by a stranger, is robbed from her own children.
SZEKLER SCHOOL. 339
The high price of hops is another of the poor
Frenchman's grievances. He is obliged to get
them all the way from Bohemia; and even then
they are not too good. However, notwithstand-
ing his grumbling, I suspect our little friend
manages to prosper.
We had still time to visit the military school
for the education of the children of the Szekler
infantry. The institution was founded by the
late Emperor, and is supported partly by a royal
grant, and partly by the Szeklers themselves. The
regulation of it is entirely in the hands of Go-
vernment. On the foundation, there are one
hundred boys, from six to eighteen years of age,
who are fed, clothed, and taught free of all ex-
pense. As these do not occupy all the room
which exists, a few additional scholars are ad-
mitted on the payment of about sixteen shil-
lings per month for the enjoyment of the same
advantages as the others. The children, when
they have finished their education, are drafted
into the infantry, and often rise to the rank of
officers. The course of education includes writ-
ing, reading, arithmetic, geography, mathematics,
military drawing, and the German language, be-
sides all the drilling and exercising, which belong
to military training. We saw specimens of their
writing and drawing, and I must say they were
very creditable. They have a small library, mostly
composed of amusing books for children, which
z2
340 SZEKLER GRIEVANCES.
are lent out to the scholars, and they seem well
selected for the purpose of giving them a taste
for reading.
It is unfortunate that here, too, in an institution
apparently so good, cause for complaint and mistrust
against Government should exist. The Szeklers say
the whole object of the school is to denationalize
their children, and make them forget their native
tongue. In fact, all the lessons are given in Ger-
man, all the books are German, and the children are
even obliged to speak German to each other. The
national language is never heard within the walls of
the national school. It is certain the poor Szeklers
think themselves very ill-treated by the Govern-
ment. Though submitting now pretty quietly to
the Border service, they object very strongly to
some of the innovations it has brought with it.
Many of the officers in the Border regiments are
Germans, and of course can have no claim to the
rights of Szekler nobility, yet Government has
within these last few months claimed for them the
right to appear and vote at the county-meetings;
and very bitter is the feeling excited among the
Szeklers in consequence.
In the mountains somewhere in this neighbour-
hood, we heard there was an extraordinary cave,
of which we had been told some rather marvellous
stories. We made all the inquiries we could at
Keszdi Vasarhely, but nobody could inform us
either of the exact distance, or of the best means
TORJA. 341
of getting there. All agreed, however, that we
must pass through Torja, a village which we could
perceive just at the foot of the mountains, some ten
miles off, where, in all probability, we should find
some one who could tell us more about the matter.
On this chance we started ; but fortunately, before
we reached the place, W recollected that Torja
was the name of the residence of an old Szekler
friend of his, and it occurred to him that this might
be the Torja in question. The first peasant we met
on entering the village confirmed his suspicions, and
led us straight to the house. Baron A , who
was at home, was delighted beyond expression to
see our friend. Unfortunately for us, the Baron
could not speak a word of German, and we could
only communicate with him through W 's in-
terpretation ; to say the truth, I doubt if he would
have spoken it even if he could, in so great horror
did he hold everything German.
After the first greetings were over, and we had
all been taken into the house and presented to
his lady, W ventured to express our wish to
get on as quickly as possible to the cave. I say
ventured, for it was not till I had given him seve-
ral hints, and even then rather against his will,
that he did so, for he knew how high a notion
the Szeklers have of the duty of hospitality, and
he foresaw no little difficulty in our escaping
without spending the whole day where we were.
When once the Baron was made to understand
342 A SZEKLER FAMILY.
that our engagements rendered it impossible for
us to stay, disappointed as he was, he consented
to get us a conveyance fit for the roads, and pro-
mised to accompany us himself to the place. While
the horses were getting ready, which I thought
occupied rather more time than was absolutely
necessary, I had time to look about me, and observe
something of the establishment of a Szekler no-
bleman. As usual, the house was only of one
story ; and, except in its size, differing but little
from those about it. The large unpaved court-
yard, surrounded by stables and waggon -sheds,
separated it from the road ; and, on the other side
were a kitchen-garden and orchard. The interior
of the house was modestly, perhaps sparingly, fur-
nished, for Baron A , though boasting a pedi-
gree scarcely to be equalled in the country, was
less favoured than many others on the score of
fortune ; but some old portraits gave an air of
dignity to the rooms, and everything was comfort-
able and well-ordered.
Here, as in every other part of the Szekler-land
we had occasion to notice the extraordinary affec-
tion and almost veneration with which Baron Wes-
sel&iyi Miklos was regarded. His portrait was seen
in every house, his name was on every lip. The
Szeklers look up to him as the great advocate
of their rights, the defender of their liberties. So
strong was the feeling of indignation and resent-
ment when they knew of his prosecution, that I
WESSEL^NYI AND THE SZEKLERS. 343
have heard it said, by those who had good oppor-
tunity to know the real state of the case, that
had he chosen to have thrown himself among the
Szeklers, they would have risen to a man in his
defence. How serious an affair the rising of forty
or fifty thousand men accustomed to the use of
arms might have been in so mountainous a coun-
try as this, it was easy to foresee, but Baron
Wessel^nyi was too true a patriot to throw his
country into rebellion, and expose her to all the
horrors of a civil war where his own interests
would have been the chief cause of quarrel. It
requires a very powerful cause to induce an honest
patriot to call his countrymen to arms, but when
once he has done so, it requires a full assurance
for the future ere he consents that they shall be
laid down.
When the horses at last arrived, the reason
of their long delay came out : the Baroness was
determined we should not leave without dining,
and though it was only nine when we got there,
and was now scarcely eleven, she assured us that
dinner was on the table, and that we should have
still time to take something before the horses
were fed and harnessed. At last we started, and
following the course of a narrow valley, where
we were frequently obliged to drive along the
brook for want of a better road, we arrived in
three hours at its far end where the road ceased
altogether. As we walked up the hill, the Baron
344 THE BUDOS.
explained to us that we were about to visit some
mineral springs, in the first instance, which occupy
the summit of this hill, and then go on about
a mile further to the Btidos, or stinking cave, of
which we were in search. When we reached the
summit we were surprised to find three or four
log-huts tolerably well constructed, and a quantity
of straw and half-burned wood lying about, as
if they had been lately inhabited. In fact, they
had been so, for in spite of the ignorance of the
people of Vasarhely upon the subject, the Budos
springs are a very fashionable bathing-place, — at
least among the peasants. They come here in
summer, build a hut of branches, line it with
straw, and stocking it plentifully with provisions,
remain here for a month or six weeks at a time.
Without waiting to look further at the springs,
we hastened to the cave.
In the face of a rock of magnesian limestone,
there was an opening large enough to contain about
a dozen persons, the floor of which slanted inwards
and downwards from the mouth. A few years ago
this cave was much larger, but a great portion of it
was destroyed by an earthquake. About the sides
of the lower part there was a thin yellow incrus-
tation, which we found to be sulphur deposited
from the gases which issue from crevices in the
rock. As we got further into the cave we felt a
sensation of tingling warmth, unlike anything I ever
felt before, creeping as it were up the body, higher
THE BUDOS. 345
and higher in proportion as we descended lower.
This extraordinary phenomenon is owing to the
concentrated state of the carbonic acid gas (mixed
with a very small proportion of sulphuretted hydro-
gen), which issues from an air-spring in the lower
part of the cave, and fills it to a level with the
mouth, whence it flows out as regular as water
would do. The temperature was not higher in one
part of the cave than in another, for in moving
the hand from the upper part to the lower not the
slightest difference could be at first perceived ; but
in a few seconds, as soon as the acid had power
to penetrate the skin, the tingling warmth was felt.
We descended till the gas reached the chin, when
we could raise it in the hand to the lips and dis-
tinctly perceive its sour taste. It is commonly
supposed that the diluted carbonic acid gas pro-
duces death by entering the lungs and excluding
all other air, but here it was impossible to respire
it ; the irritation produced on the glottis contracted
it convulsively, and death would therefore occur
almost immediately from strangulation. If any of
it got into the eyes and nose, it made them smart
severely. The peasants ascertain how far they can
go with safety by striking their flints, and stopping
when they no longer give sparks.
We remained for some time in the cave enjoy-
ing the sensation it produced exceedingly. As
might be expected, so excellent an air-bath has not
been neglected by the peasants of the neighbour-
346 THE BUDOS.
hood, and hundreds repair hither to profit by it every
year. The common manner of using it is, to repair
to the cave early in the morning, and remain for an
hour or more, with the whole body subjected to the
influence of the gas, till a profuse perspiration is
produced, when they proceed to one of the cold
baths we had observed as we came up. These
baths are impregnated with the same gases as the
air of the cavern, but contain apparently rather
more sulphur. The cases for which the Biidos is
most celebrated, are those of chronic rheumatism,
and complicated mercurial affections. So great is
the carelessness of the peasants, that rarely a year
passes without some of them perishing in this cave.
This season two such accidents had happened. The
common name given to the cave is the " Murder-
hole " (Gyilkoslyuk).
As we returned, many mineral springs were
pointed out to us, with which indeed the whole
mountain seems to be covered.
We had intended, after seeing the Biidos, to visit
the ruins of a fine old castle, formerly the residence
of Baron A 's ancestors, which crowned the
summit of the mountain, and then go on to the
Lake of St. Anna, about four hours further ; but it
set in for so wet a night, that the length of the
march and the certainty of being obliged to sleep
on the damp ground cooled our ardour. The lake
is said to be small, and occupies the summit of
a hill. It is believed to be the crater of an old
THE HAROM-SZtiK. 347
volcano. We now made the best of our way back,
and bidding adieu to Baron A at Torja, we
got to our snug quarters at the Frenchman's in
time for supper.
We bade adieu to the Szekler-land the next day,
but not till we had passed through a part of it, the
Harom-Sz6k, forming one of the most beautiful
spots this earth can show. The whole district is
a gently undulating plain, covered with the richest
I crops, dotted over with flourishing villages, watered
by the meandering Aluta, and bounded on two
| sides by the most beautiful chains of mountains
! it is possible to conceive. Time after time did we
| stop the carriage and turn back to enjoy another
i last look at this beautiful scene. And then what
I treasures of unexplored scenery, what hosts of
Nature's miracles, do those mountains contain ! We
: had heard of caverns, cliffs, and ruins, of boiling
springs, and streams of naphtha, and I know not
; what else ; yet every one said that, except to the
I shepherds, almost all these wonders are known only
by name.
We had remarked throughout the Szekler-land,
I generally, a better state of cultivation and greater
signs of industry than in most other parts of Tran-
I sylvania, but this was nowhere so manifest as in
the Harom-Szek. The implements were rude, the
| system of cultivation exceedingly imperfect, but
yet the general aspect of the country showed how
much application and industry will do to supply
348 THE HAROM-SZ^K.
the want of knowledge and capital. Property is
more equally divided here than elsewhere, the
people are consequently more industrious, and I
believe, produce more than in other parts, where,
although their forces may be better applied, large
possessions induce idleness and indifference in the
mass of the people.
THE SAXON LAND.
349
CHAPTER XL
THE SAXONS, AND THE SAXON LAND.
The Saxon Land. — Settlement of the Saxons. — Their Charter. —
Political and Municipal Privileges. — Saxon Character. — School
Sickness. — Kronstadt. — A Hunting Party. — Smuggling from
Wallachia. — The Bear and the General. — Terzburg and the
German Knights. — Excursion to Bucses. — The Kalibaschen. —
The Convent.— The Valleys of Bucses.— Virtue in Self-denial.
— The Alpine Horn. — Fortified Churches and Infidel Invasions.
— Fogaras. — Hermanstadt. — Baron Bruchenthal. — Rothen
Thurm Pass. — A Digression on Wallachia and Moldavia. —
Saxon Language. — Beauty of Transylvania.
THE narrow waters of the Aluta separate two as
distinct races of men, two as opposite systems of
government, and for many years two as bitter na-
tional enemies as though mountains or oceans had
for ages opposed a natural barrier of separation
betwixt them. We crossed a simple wooden bridge
thrown across a mere brook, and from the Szeklers
we had passed to the land of the Saxons. Nor
was the outward appearance of things less changed.
Although it was the same plain we were traversing,
and although the same green mountains bounded
it, and the same brooks watered it, there was a
350 THE SAXONS.
manifest difference in the part which man had acted
on its surface.
I have already remarked that the Harom-Szek
was better cultivated than the rest of the Szekler
land, but the Burzenland land, as this part of the
Saxon land is called, appeared like a garden in com-
parison even with that. The whole plain seemed
alive with ploughs and harrows — in the Harom-
Sz£k they had not yet begun to break up the
ground, — and on every side teams were moving
about, manure was spreading, and the seed was
scattered abroad, with a busy hand. It was more
like a scene in the best part of Belgium, than what
one would expect on the borders of Turkey. It was
striking, too, after the eye had been so long accus-
tomed to the Hungarian dresses of the Szeklers, in
all their picturesque rudeness, to have before it
nothing but the stiff old-fashioned costumes which
one still sees among the most primitive inhabitants
of Germany. How it has happened that the Saxons,
who have been so far separated from the rest of
the great German family, should have hit upon the
self-same ugly costume — for it certainly did not
exist when they emigrated — would be a puzzle
for the most erudite of philosophising tailors, and
is, I must confess, far beyond me. But the most
startling feature in the picture was the very ac-
tive part taken by the women in the operations
so busily carried on before us. Some were sow-
ing corn, others using the fork and spade, others
THE SAXON WOMEN. 351
again holding- the plough, and — believe or not, as
you will, reader — there, too, was the stout Saxon
Ham Frau seated, en cavalier, on the near wheeler,
and driving four-in-hand, as composedly as possi-
ble. Nor was decency put to the blush by the
slightest exposure. The Saxon women have bor-
rowed the long boots from their Hungarian neigh-
bours, which, with their own thick woollen petti-
coats covered their whole persons most effectually.
The dress of these women is much the same as that
which the broom girls have made familiar to our
streets, — a cloth petticoat with most ample folds,
surmounted by a cloth stomacher buttoned or laced
in front, and a small cap, fitting closely on the head ;
or for the unmarried girls, a long braid of flaxen
hair hanging down the back, with a straw hat of
small crown and preposterously broad brim. Such
stout maids as some of these hats shaded, and so
unpoetically employed, I never saw; but I have no
doubt their round, fat, good-tempered faces, and
laughing blue eyes, have not the less charms for
the Saxon youth because they are united to a
strong and healthy body, and to habits of industry,
albeit coarse in their kind. The Saxons are a
canny folk, and if not very romantic and chival-
rous, they are prudent and laborious. But before
I discuss more of their character, let me say a
word or two of their history.
It was to the Servian Princess Helena, the wife
of the Blind Bela, who ruled in Hungary about
352 THE SAXON CHARTER.
the middle of the twelfth century, during the mi-
nority of her son Geysa the Second, that Transyl-
vania owed the repeopling her wastes with indus-
trious German colonists. Taking advantage of the
peace which she had concluded with the Emperor
of Germany, she invited the peasants of that coun-
try to emigrate, and promised them lands and liber-
ties within the boundaries of Hungary. 1143 is
commonly assigned as the date of their first set-
tlement— some of them in the North of Hungary,
and others in Transylvania. Under Andrew the
Second, in 1224, two years after the Bulla Aurea,
those of Transylvania obtained a charter of their
liberties, of which the chief articles seem to have
been as follows : —
" They might elect from their own body a chief,
or Comes, who should be their judge in peace, and
leader in war.
" No change to be made in the coin within their
boundaries, but they consented to pay for this privi-
lege a yearly tax of five hundred marks of silver.
" They agreed to furnish five hundred soldiers for
a defensive war, and one hundred for an offensive, if
the army was commanded by the king in person,
but only fifty if commanded by an Hungarian mag-
nate.
" The free election of their own clergy, and their
undisturbed enjoyment of the tithe.
" Right of pasture and wood-cutting in the forests
of the Wallacks and Byssenians.
HISTORY OF THE SAXONS. 353
" Freedom from more than twice entertaining the
Woivode in the course of the year.
" Removal of market-tolls from their district,
and freedom of their trade-companies from all
tolls."
It was not likely that a foreign nation should be
allowed to take up its dwelling among a people so
wild and so jealous of foreigners as the Magyars,
without having to fight hard for its possessions ; and
frequent were the contests to which the German
settlers were exposed. The king, however, was
always ready to lend his aid to his faithful Saxons,
and with his help, and by their own industry, they
throve in spite of all opposition. When Transyl-
vania was contending for an independent sovereignty,
the Saxons joined the Hungarian nobles in oppo-
sition to Austria, and a union of the Magyars,
Szeklers, and Saxons was formed, by which each
party was secured in its own rights and privileges,
and to each was given a fair share in the common
legislative assembly. They still, however, retained
their own laws and municipal institutions.
One of the fundamental laws of the Saxons is
the equality of every individual of the Saxon nation.
They have no nobles, no peasants. Not but that
many of the Saxons have received letters of nobility,
and deck themselves out in all its plumes ; yet, as
every true Saxon will tell you, that is only as
Hungarian nobles, not as Saxons.
Their municipal government was entirely in their
VOL. II. A A
354 SAXON GRIEVANCES.
own hands ; every village chose its own officers,
and managed its own affairs, without the inter-
ference of any higher power. A few years ago,
however, a great and completely arbitrary change
was made in this institution, which, though it
almost escaped notice at the time, has since excited
the most bitter complaints. The whole of this
transaction was managed without the consent either
of the Diet or the Saxon nation. Its effects have
been to deprive the Saxon communities of the free
exercise of their privileges, and to deliver them
into the power of a corrupt bureaucracy, over which
they have little or no control.
The Saxons, however, are a slow people, sus-
picious of their neighbours, and caring more for
material than political interests; and though they
have long complained, they have scarcely ever
ventured to demand a restitution of their rights.
Hitherto, the Saxons have been among the most
certain adherents of the Crown ; and, whether from
a recollection of former wrongs, or irritated by an
insolent bearing on the part of the Hungarians,
or afraid of losing their own privileges by aiding
the objects of others, they have rarely joined the
Liberal party. In the last Diet, however, even the
Saxons, — prvdentes et circumspecti although they
be entitled, — could not altogether resist the tide
of public opinion, and, egged on a little perhaps by
their own wrongs, they too joined the opposition.
Not that they altogether belied their title even
A SCHOOL SICKNESS. 355
then, for they are said to have done it so cautiously,
that it was often difficult to know to which side they
really leaned. When it was determined to send a
deputation to the Emperor, to remonstrate against
the proceedings of the Arch-Duke, two Saxon de-
puties were included amongst the number of those
selected. All manner of excuses were urged to
enable them to escape from the perilous honour ;
but the Hungarians mischievously enjoyed their
difficulty, and would admit of no apology. When
they arrived at Vienna, and the day came for the
dreaded audience, the Saxon deputies were both
taken suddenly ill, and protested they could not
leave their beds, but they desired the rest of the
deputation to proceed without them, declaring at
the same time that they would wait on his Majesty
alone when sufficiently recovered. As this lame
apology for their absence was offered to the Em-
peror, he burst into a hearty laugh, and exclaimed,
" Ah ! ah ! a school sickness ! a school sickness !
My poor Saxons ! they don't like to bring me
disagreeable news."
For the rest, the Saxons are undoubtedly the
most industrious, steady, and frugal of all the in-
habitants of Transylvania, and they are consequently
the best lodged, best clothed, and best instructed.
Kronstadt was the object we were now making
for, and we had almost entered it before we were
aware of its proximity, so completely is it imbedded
in the mountains, which bound this plain to the
AA2
356 KRONSTADT.
south. The first glimpse was sufficient to show us
that we were approaching something different from
what we had seen before. The outskirts of the
town were occupied by pretty villas, surrounded
by well-kept gardens, strongly indicative of com-
merce, and the wealth and tastes it brings with
it, and very different from the straggling houses
and neglected court-yards of the poor Szekler
nobles. Before the gates of the town is a large
open esplanade, forming a promenade, ornamented
with avenues of trees and a Turkish kiosk. The
gates themselves are still standing, three deep, and
looking as terrible as when Kronstadt was still a
place of strength, and when its brave magistrate,
Michael Weiss, held it with so much glory against
the faithless Bathori Gabor, and all the forces
which Transylvania could bring against it.
If the reader will understand the situation of
Kronstadt, let him imagine an opening in the long
line of mountains which separate Transylvania
from Wallachia in the form of a triangle, between
the legs of which stands an isolated hill. Within
this triangle, lies the town of Kronstadt, and on
the top of the isolated hill there is a modern
fortress of some strength. The mountains come
so close down on the little valley, that the walls
are in many places built part of the way up
their sides. The town itself is regularly and
well built, and its towers and walls and bristling
spires, standing out against the mountain sides, —
KRONSTADT.
(.
357
themselves well
covered with wood,
and fretted with lime-
stone peaks, — form one
of the most picturesque
scenes the artist could desire.
A rapid stream rushes in various channels
through the streets ; and besides serving to keep
the Saxons clean, makes itself useful to a host
of dyers, fellmongers, tanners, and millers, with
which this little Manchester abounds. Kronstadt
and its neighbourhood are in fact the only parts
of Transylvania in which any manufactured pro-
duce is prepared for exportation, and here it is
carried on to a considerable extent. The chief
articles produced are woollen cloths, of a coarse
description, such as are used for the dresses of
the peasants, linen and cotton goods, stockings,
358 KRONSTADT.
skins, leather, wooden bottles of a peculiar form
and very much esteemed, and light waggons on
wooden springs. The principal part of its exports
are to Wallachia and Moldavia. A considerable
transit commerce between Vienna and the Prin-
cipalities is likewise carried on through Kronstadt,
which is chiefly in the hands of a privileged com-
pany of Greek merchants. This trade is said to
have fallen off of late years ; it is likely to be still
further diminished as the Danube opens better
channels of communication.
The population of Kronstadt amounts to thirty-
six thousand, by far the greatest of any town in
Transylvania, and it is composed of as motley a
crew as can well be imagined. The sober plod-
ding Saxon is jostled by the light and cunning
Greek ; the smooth-faced Armenian, the quaker of
the East, in his fur cloak, and high kalpak, meets
his match at a bargain in the humble-looking Jew ;
and the dirty Boyar from Jassy, proud of his wealth
and his nobility, meets his equal in pride in the
peasant noble of the Szekler-land. Hungarian
magnates and Turkish merchants, Wallack shep-
herds and gipsy vagabonds make up the motley
groups which give life and animation to the streets
of Kronstadt.
Our first visit was to the old church, a vener-
able Gothic structure of elegant proportions. Al-
though the church now belongs to the Lutherans,
the national religion of the Saxons, its buttresses
CORPORATE DIGNITY. 359
bear the somewhat time-eaten statues of Catholic
saints, each in its separate niche. The door-ways,
rounder than the Gothic arch of that age (1400)
with us, are well carved in bold compartments, —
and rare good taste ; the doors themselves are richly
worked in the same style. The interior is bold
and pure, though rather simple.
All the trades in Transylvania are under the rule
of companies and corporations ; and I was much
amused by their chartered pride as illustrated in
this church. The women occupy rows of benches
up the centre of the aisle ; but on the sides are
arranged a number of seats in regular gradation for
the men, divided off into different sets, each set
being appropriated to a particular corporation. The
heads of the corporation are seated in front of the
rest, and their stalls are ornamented with rich Per-
sian carpets, after the manner of the East. In a
gallery above, the apprentices of these trades are
placed in similar order; first, the tanners, then
the shoe-makers, then the masons, and so on, with
their arms and insignia painted in gay colours on
the front.
As we left the church, the Lutheran college
was pointed out to us, and, in a few minutes
after, we saw a number of students and professors
issuing from its doors in the oddest costume aca-
demic fancy ever contrived. The student is clothed
in a long, straight-cut black coat, reaching below
his knees, and fastened from the neck to the waist
360 WALLACK CHURCH.
by a row of broad silver hooks, each two inches
long, and so closely set together, that they look
like a facing of solid silver. Above this is a black
cloak fastened by a huge antique-looking silver
chain ; below a pair of black knee-boots, and, to
crown the whole, a monstrous cocked-hat. Except
that their cloak was of silk instead of cloth, the
professors wore nearly the same dress. Every one
as he passed us raised his huge cocked-hat to salute
the strangers, and it kept us for full five minutes
bare-headed to return this shower of unexpected
civilities. *
Beyond the walls of the old town we were shown
the great Wai lack church, the handsomest belong-
ing to that body in the country, and, what is still
more worthy of remark, rebuilt by an Empress of
Russia in 1751. The interior is, as usual in Wai-
lack churches, completely covered with paintings of
saints and devils, the latter playing every sort of
trick, to cheat the angel, and to overload the balance
on the side of sin at the last judgment, which it
was possible for the united imaginations of artist
and priest to conceive. There is something very
eastern in the Greek custom of excluding the
women from the body of the church : here they
were thrust into an outer part, where they could
scarcely even hear the service. We observed
* Besides this college, the Saxons have Gymnasia, in Hermann-
stadt, Schlossburg, Muhlenbach, Mediasch, Bistritz, Groszschenk,
and Birthalm.
KRONSTADT. 361
several small silver crosses richly ornamented with
precious stones, and each pretending to enclose a
portion of the true cross.
Though the walls and gates of Kronstadt have
been for the most part preserved, — as indeed they
well deserve, for many of the towers are exceed-
ingly picturesque, — the ditch has been wisely con-
verted to the purposes of a public promenade, and
a very beautiful one it makes.
The proximity to Turkey, and the frequent inter-
course of its inhabitants with this place, have given
to Kronstadt something of Turkish habits and man-
ners. The amber mouth-piece, the long chibouque,
the odoriferous tobacco, the delicious dolchazza, and
the various other sweetmeats of a Turkish confec-
tioner's— the coffee-house in the form of a kiosk,
the bazaar, and many other peculiarities, remind
the traveller of the customs of the East.
As we were walking about after dinner, making
some few purchases preparatory to leaving, and
more especially of some of the excellent liqueurs
for which Kronstadt is so celebrated, W
found in one of the Kronstadters, an old college-
companion, by whom he was heartily welcomed to
the town. This was all very pleasant, but then
came the difficulty of getting away. We had seen
nothing at all, he told us ; and the country was full
of wonderful sights which it was quite impossible
we should leave without visiting. We remained
firm notwithstanding, and returned back to our
362 A HUNTING PARTY.
inn, and ordered the horses to be ready for the
next morning. We were scarcely seated, however,
before our Kronstadter broke in upon us with his
friend Herr v. L , a gentleman of the neigh-
bourhood, who would not hear of our leaving with-
out a promise of paying him a visit in our way.
Besides a fine country to show us, he had the best
grounds for chamois and bear-hunting of any in
Transylvania, and was himself a most enthusiastic
sportsman. This was not to be resisted, and he
accordingly bade us good night that he might
hasten home and make preparations for the next
morning, we agreeing to be with him at an early
hour.
We were off by six, and on our way to Zer-
nyest, full of hopes, in which chamois and bears
held a conspicuous place. We passed a rich and
flourishing village, Rosenau, where, on the hill
above, were very extensive ruins of an old castle,
formerly one of the strongest in the country. We
found Herr v. L waiting for us with a whole
train of Wallack* peasants, armed and ready for
the sport. After a hearty breakfast, we mounted
some small ponies and followed a clear crystal
brook — Herr v. L says, containing the finest-
flavoured trout in the country — along the foot
of the mountain, till we came at last to the base
* Zernyest is a fief of Kronstadt, and held by peasants (Wai-
lacks), in the same manner as in the Hungarian counties. Our
host had taken it on a lease.
WALLACK SMUGGLERS. 363
of the Konigsberg, one of the highest of this range
on which the hunt was to take place. From this
point the ascent began, but for another hour we
could still ride ; so we threw the reins on the ponies'
necks, and allowed them to scramble on among the
rocks and stones as best they could. These animals
seemed so well accustomed to the work, that I could
not help thinking they had often been employed
at it before, though, perhaps, with other burthens.
On inquiring of our host he confirmed the opinion,
and said they had probably been much further ; for
this was one of the favourite roads of the smugglers,
and some of our jagers were among the most
notorious of that profession in the country. " You
see that old man with the white head," he observed ;
he frequently crosses into Wallachia and back
again on such errands, and sometimes passes the
Danube into Roumelia. On one occasion, he went
even as far as Adrianople. The ordinary station,
however, is Kimpolung, about one day's journey
across the border: there the goods are delivered
to their agent by some house in Bucharest, and are
retained in safety till the smuggler arrives, shows
the countersign agreed on, receives them, and
transports them to the merchant in Kronstadt.
The whole affair is arranged in a perfectly business-
like manner, and a very few zwanzigers are con-
sidered sufficient payment for the risk. Only a
short time since, a gentleman of this neighbour-
hood sent our old white-headed friend to bring
364 WALLACK SMUGGLERS.
him some cachmere shawls from Kimpolung. The
old man threw his gun over his shoulder, filled
his wallet with malaj (maize bread), and went out
as if in pursuit of game only. As he was return-
ing the officers caught sight of him; and as they
knew his character, though they never were able to
convict him, they seized and examined him. He
was too sharp for them ; before they came up the
shawls were hidden under some well-marked rock,
and a brace of moor fowl was all his bag contained.
Nevertheless, they felt so sure of his guilt, that they
threw him into prison. Of course, I could not
allow my peasant to be confined without a cause,
and I accordingly demanded that he should be re-
leased if no proof could be brought against him.
He was set free, and the next day the gentleman
received his shawls."
And is there no danger of these men betraying
their employers ? I asked. " None ; there is no
example of it — no flogging can get their secret from
them. For the rest, the punishment is but slight,
and with a good friend and our judges, a little pre-
sent will generally settle the matter."
" Do you mean," I asked, " that regular smug-
gling can be carried on over these mountains in
spite of the Borderers ?"
" Either in spite of them, or with their con-
sent ; there is no difficulty in either ; they are so
wretchedly poor, that the smallest bribe will pur-
chase them."
WALLACK SMUGGLERS. 365
"And can bulky articles be obtained in this
way?"
" Oh, yes ! the staple commodity is salt, although
articles of French, English, and Turkish manufac-
ture are common too. If one horse won't carry
them, two will, and it only requires a little more
care."
" So," I added, " if I wanted a Turkey carpet in
Klausenburg, without paying sixty per cent, duty
on it, I could have it?"
"Ho, Juan!" said Herr v. L addressing the
smuggler, " this gentleman wishes to know if you
could get him a Turkey carpet safe over the bor-
lers from Bucharest?"
The old man looked up from under his bushy
re-brows with a cunning smile, and for answer,
jked quietly, " By what day does the Dumnie wish
have it?"
Herr v. L seemed quite proud of the skill
and courage of his old Wallack peasant. " I could
do nothing without him," he observed ; " he is
the best huntsman, and best mountaineer in the
whole country." There is a sort of natural sym-
pathy between sportsmen and smugglers and
poachers, — indeed, the same qualities of mind
and habits of body, tend to form the one as the
other ; anc! I feel sure that all our best sportsmen
would have been poachers or smugglers in other
circumstances.
We now dismounted, and leaving our ponies to
366 CHAMOIS HUNT.
the care of a peasant, sent off the jagers to beat
the side of the mountain, while we prepared to
take up our position above. We had still two
hours' climbing before us. Our path lay straight
up the mountain in a cleft, formed either by the
water, or some crack in the rocks, and enclosed
on either side by huge cliffs, which towered so
straight above our heads, that it made us dizzy to
trace their sharp peaks as they succeeded each
other. The path was not one of the smoothest,
and it often brought us on our hands and knees
before we arrived at our position. At last, the gun
was fired by the treibers and jagers to warn us that
their beat was begun, and we concealed ourselves,
and waited with open ears and eyes and with ready
gun the wished-for sound of hoofs on the hard rock.
This beat lasted two long hours.
I shall not plague you, reader, with all my re-
flections on the pleasure of sitting on a cold stone
directly in the way of a cutting wind, which rushed
from the snow mountain just above us to the
sunny plains below, we having been heated with
two hours' previous climbing ; I shall only say, as
Herr v. L did, " it requires a little seasoning
before one can relish it." For the third time, we
were doomed to a blank day; not a chamois was
to be found. We were repaid, however, for our
trouble, by the beautiful scenery which this moun-
tain offers. It is bold and grand to the highest
degree. From my hiding-place, I had a view over
ij..
•
BEAR HUNTING. 367
nearly the half of Transylvania. I saw three sepa-
rate elevations of hill and vale, sinking below each
other as they receded from the high lands.
As the reader may believe, we were not very
much tempted by an offer of our host's of a bear
hunt the next day, especially as for that purpose it
would have .been necessary to remain in the moun-
tains for three days at least. Although our host
assured us that bears were very plentiful, and that
he generally killed seven or eight in the course
of the year, we had heard too much of the extreme
probability of a disappointment to try it. I know
many Transylvanian gentlemen who never miss a
ear without going out once or twice on a bear
unt ; but, except our host, I know only one other
ho has ever shot a bear, though I know many that
Herr v. L told us an excellent story of a
bear hunt, which took place in these very moun-
tains, and in his own presence. General V , the
Austrian commander of the forces in this district,
had come to Kronstadt to inspect the troops, and
had been invited by our friend, in compliment to
his rank, to join him in a bear hunt. Now, the
* I have not been able to satisfy myself if the wild goat really
exists in these mountains. In Wallachia, I was assured that it
did ; but Herr von L said he had never met either with the
wild goat or stein-bock, or indeed with any game of that kind,
except the chamois, in the course of his experience. The wild
goat, however, is very commonly spoken of, and I have heard
many say they have eaten it. It may exist more to the north.
368 THE BEAR AND THE GENERAL.
General, though more accustomed to drilling than
hunting, accepted the invitation, and appeared in
due time in a cocked hat and long grey great-coat,
the uniform of an Austrian general. When they
had taken up their places, the General, with half-
a-dozen rifles arrayed before him, paid such devoted
attention to a bottle of spirits he had brought with
him, that he quite forgot the object of his coming.
At last, however, a huge bear burst suddenly from
the cover of the pine forest directly in front of
him. At that moment, the bottle was raised so
high, that it quite obscured the General's vision,
and he did not perceive the intruder till he was
close upon him; — down went the bottle, up jumped
the astonished soldier, and, forgetful of his guns, off
he started, with the bear clutching at the tails of
his great-coat as he ran away. What strange con-
fusion of ideas was muddling the General's intel-
lect at the moment, it is difficult to say; but I
suspect he had some notion that the attack was
an act of insubordination on the part of bruin, for
he called out most lustily, as he ran along, " Back !
rascal, back ! I am a general !" Luckily a poor
Wallack peasant had more respect for the epau-
lettes than the bear, and throwing himself in the
way, with nothing but a spear for his defence, he
kept the enemy at bay, till our friend and the
jagers came up and finished the contest with their
rifles.
Although we declined the bear-hunt, we could
TERZBURG. 369
not resist the offer of Herr v. L to accompany
us in an excursion just across the borders to a
Wallachian hermitage, which he described as ro-
mantic, wild, and picturesque in the highest degree.
It was too far for one day's journey from Zernyest,
so we left immediately after dinner for Terzburg,
a small village on the very borders of Transylvania,
by which our route would lead us. As the parents
of our host's lady, an Armenian, lived there, he
took us at once to their house and found us accom-
modations.
Before W could be persuaded to leave his
bed next morning, I had accompanied our friend to
visit the old castle of Terzburg, which is still in-
habited and in good preservation. It occupies the
point of an isolated rock, of no great height, indeed,
but very steep on every side. It is in a singular
style, half Byzantine, half Gothic. Its importance
in former times was so great, that the Kronstadters
received valuable privileges for having built it. At
this point begins one of the few practicable passes
between Wallachia and Transylvania, and the com-
mand of it must often therefore have decided the
result of an incursion. Even in the very earliest
times, Terzburg seems to have been a chosen point
of defence, and it is said to take its German name
of Diedrichstein from Theodoric, the chief of the
order of German knights, to whom the whole of
this district was given by King Andreas, on condi-
tion of their defending the frontiers. The many
VOL. n. B B
370 TERZBURG.
castles, often in ruins, with which the Burzen-land —
as this portion of the Saxon-land is called, from the
little river Burze, which flows through it — abounds,
are generally referable to this period; but that of
Terzburg, at least as it now stands, has a later
origin.
We gained' the interior of the castle by a small
portal, nearly half way up the tower. A fixed
wooden stair now leads to this opening, though it
was formerly to be reached only by a ladder, which
was always drawn up at night. The ancient door,
cased in iron, still exists. It is constructed like a
drawbridge, and lets down by iron chains, so as to
form a landing-place before the entrance. A little
court-yard occupies the centre of the building, and,
as usual, it is surrounded by open galleries, commu-
nicating with the different apartments. Everything
remains in its pristine state, though some of the
parts are no longer applied to their original pur-
poses. One strong bastion has been made into a
hen-roost, a respectable-looking tower is treated
even less respectfully, port-holes serve to trundle
mops in, and dishcloths hang where spears were
wont to rest. The rooms are small and almost
without ornament. On the whole, I was much
pleased with Terzburg ; for although there is little
to describe, there are few old castles which give
one a better idea of the times when they were
erected, or of the manner of life for which they
were adapted, than Terzburg.
THE KALIBASCHEN. 371
W was up on our return ; and after taking
coffee with this homely Armenian family, we
mounted our ponies, and set off for Bucses. Just
on the other side of the castle we found the quaran-
tine establishment for travellers coming from Tur-
key ; for though the confines of Transylvania really
extend foul* hours beyond this point, yet that part
is considered in sporco, and its inhabitants are not
allowed to pass without undergoing quarantine.
The inhabitants of this district, extra terminos, are
a strange wild set of creatures, originally settlers
from Wallachia, and as near as possible to a state of
barbarism. They are called Kalibaschen from the
Kaliban, or huts in which they live, and are subject
to the jurisdiction of the commander of the castle
of Terzburg. They live chiefly by the pasturage of
cattle, for which these mountains and valleys offer
a tolerable supply ; and, although we were told they
had been much improved of late years, and had
even been collected into villages, yet in appearance
they are little less wild than the bears and wolves,
their only neighbours.
We took an officer of the quarantine with us
to protect us from detention on our return ; and
pushing on for a short distance along the regular
road which conducts from Kronstadt to Kimpo-
lung over the pass of Terzburg, we soon devi-
ated to the east, and, following the course of a
shallow brook, made its stony bed our road for the
first hour. We were next obliged to ascend the
B B 2
372 A MOUNTAIN PASS.
mountain by a zig-zag path, worked out by the feet
of the sheep and cattle which browse along its sides.
About two-thirds up we found a narrow pathway,
which conducted us along the steep sides of the
mountain, and which was eventually to be our road
across the frontier. For three hours did we tra-
verse these rocks — of course, only at a foot pace,
for the road was rarely more than two feet wide,
and often less — sometimes proceeding through deep
hanging woods, sometimes along the edges of bare
precipices, which it made one dizzy to look down.
Our ponies were weak ; and though accustomed to
the mountains, by no means equal to the difficulties
of such a road as this. The heat, however, was so
oppressive, and rendered us so indisposed for exer-
tion, that we preferred the dangers of riding to the
trouble of a safer means of advancing. I had nearly
paid dearly for my laziness. As my horse was pick-
ing his way over a very difficult place where a gap
occurred in the rocks, and where he had nothing
but their smooth surfaces to fix his feet on, he
slipped and fell. Luckily I was cool enough to
give him his head, and remain perfectly still : the
poor beast, too, kept his balance, and, aware of
his danger, instead of all the rush and bustle
which a horse commonly makes in recovering him-
self, he quietly pushed himself up with his nose,
raised one leg, felt about till he was sure of a
safe footing, and then slowly moved the other.
Had either of us swerved but the merest trifle to
FRONTIER OF WALLACHIA. 373
one side, our lives must have paid for it. As a mass
of stone loosened by our fall was rolled over the
edge of the precipice, and bounded from rock to
rock till it was lost in the mass of black pines
which filled up the bottom of the ravine, I could
not help feeling a little uncomfortable at the pro-
spect I had just had of making a similar excursion.
Nevertheless I continued to ride on ; for, as I said
before, the heat was oppressive, and the chance of a
broken neck was at the moment less disagreeable
than the trouble of exertion.
We passed a fine flock of sheep, consisting of
several hundreds of the long-woolled, curly-horned
sheep of Transylvania, which were on their road
to pasture in Wallachia for the winter. These
sheep were the property of a rich peasant. It is no
uncommon thing here, to send sheep or cattle not
only into Wallachia, but even across the Danube
into Turkey for winter grazing; so great a difference
is there in the severity of the climate on the north
and south sides of this part of the Carpathians.
As we gained the frontier, which is on the very
summit of this mountain ridge, and which is marked
by a modest wooden cross, we had an extensive
view over the Burzen-land, and even over some part
of the Szekler-land. The Wallachian sentry, who
had left his solitary post to fetch water from a neigh-
bouring spring, — and a very odd spring that is, too,
— hastened back as he observed our approach, not,
as we feared, to oppose our passage, but to pay us
374 THE FALLEN FOREST.
the compliment of a military salute, and beg some-
thing for his trouble. A pair of tight woollen trou-
sers, a shirt, and sheep-skin cap, formed his uni-
form, a cross-belt, and a well-cleaned musket, his
accoutrements. His guard-room was a sorry shed
formed of branches of trees and a few logs ; his
rations a little Indian corn. The guard ought to
consist of six men ; but his comrades, he said, were
gone out hunting. A chamois or a roebuck must
form an acceptable addition to their meagre fare.
These men belong to the Wallachian frontier guard,
and are intended to protect the country from border
robbers, and to prevent smuggling ; though, indeed,
where the duty is only five per cent, as in Walla-
chia, that is little to be feared. How far their
organization extends, or what similarity they may
present to those on the other side, I was not able to
learn.
The greater part of the pine forests which once
covered the mountain we were now descending, on
the Wallachian territory, presented an extraordi-
nary spectacle. During a tremendous storm which
occurred some twenty years ago among these moun-
tains, the whole forest had been swept down by a
gust of wind — not singly, but in one mass — and there
lie still the prostrate trunks, bared of their bark and
whitened in the sun, covering the whole mountain
side with their ruins, and looking as if they were
cut down, stripped, and laid out ready for removal.
Whether they had been broken off, or uprooted, we
VALLEY OF BUCSES. 375
were too far off to distinguish ; probably the latter,
as the soil was thin, and the pine is more apt to
spread its roots than strike them deeply into the
soil. It is not impossible that some of those half-
fossilized forests buried in our bogs, as well as the
bogs themselves, have been thus formed. It is no
argument to the contrary, that we never experience
storms capable of producing such effects at the
present day ; for in a country cultivated as ours is,
its forests opened, its morasses drained, and its
whole climate consequently modified, we have no
idea of what the winds are capable of in the wild
mountains and trackless plains of such a district as
this : — in England civilization has tamed the very
elements !
An hour's descent on the Wallachian side brought
us to the bottom of the first valley, where a clear
rivulet, the course of which we followed, led us on
to a second, which was terminated by a narrow cleft
of the rocks, something like what we have already
seen in the Thordai Hasadek, and the cavern of
Almas. Here, almost for the first time since we
had left Terzburg, did we meet with a sign of man's
domination. At the entrance to the cleft, a fence
of firs and a little gate, showed that there was
something within considered worth protection ; and
a small cross, placed at the risk of life on the very
highest pinnacle of the rock, looked as though
gratitude to the Dispenser of that something, had
been there to hallow the possession. We passed the
376
HERMITAGE OF BUCSES.
gate, and mounting a steep and narrow foot-path,
soon came in sight of the cavern and hermitage
of Bucses.
And is it possible that any human beings can
have selected so wild and solitary a spot as this,
for their residence ? — was the inquiry of all when
we first caught a glimpse of the gaping cave, and of
the small line of white buildings, which encloses it
from without. Our guide soon furnished an answer
to the question ; for he knocked so loudly at the
little door, that an old monk speedily answered the
summons; and, learning the object of our visit,
welcomed us in Wallachian, and invited us to
HERMITS OF BUCSES. 377
enter the callugcrie or hermitage. In the inte-
rior, under the arched vault of the cavern, we
found a small Greek chapel, and two other low
buildings of wood, containing cells for seven or
eight hermits.
At the present time there were only three of
them at home — two old men, whose grey beards
we took as testimonies to their virtue, and one
neophyte, a half-cunning, half-foolish-looking lad
of sixteen. One of them was busily employed
in superintending the boiling of a pot, which
hung from three sticks, over a wood fire in the
open air, and formed their only kitchen, while
another was cutting mushrooms and some other
species of fungus* into slices, and hanging them
up to dry. I at first imagined all this prepa-
ration was for making Schwamm for tinder; but
no, it was a winter stock of provisions they were
laying up. Our friend assured us that, except
this dried fungus and Indian corn, and a little
goat's milk, these men probably tasted nothing but
water the whole winter through, and they were
happy when they had a sufficiency of these. In
summer, the shepherds sometimes bring them fresh
food, and they themselves collect fruits and roots
among the mountains near ; but their chief support
* On the Continent several species of fungus are used in
cookery, beside the mushroom, which, if not so delicate, are still
well worth attention. One of these reaches the size of an
ordinary plate, and cannot weigh less than a pound.
378 VALLEY OF BUCSES.
is derived from the proceeds of their begging, in
the form of maize, with which the wanderers re-
turn in autumn. All they could offer us to aid
our own supplies, was some of this fungus toasted,
with a little grease and salt. The fungus was
decidedly good, as far as it went, though I believe
we could have eaten up the whole store, without
feeling satisfied.
The cave of Bucses, though high and fine, is not
extensive ; at least, it is not possible to penetrate
more than a hundred yards from its entrance,
however much farther it may really go. The monks
pointed out to us the opening in the direction
in which the rest of the cavern extends, and by
which a small brook makes its way out to the
day; but they have blocked it up so high, to ren-
der their cave warmer, that it is no longer possible
to reach it.
After looking at everything within the hermit-
age— the simple church, the yet simpler dwell-
ings, and the most simple dwellers therein — and
after partaking of their rude fare, we left guides
and horses to their rest, and wandered out into
the valley to admire the extraordinary and savage
beauty of the scene. Immediately about the
cavern the rocks assumed the form of bold cliffs;
on the opposite side, a high pinnacle of rock raised
its cross-crowned head to the skies, and further on
the black pine covered the mountain sides, and
rendered the valley dark and sombre. The stream
VALLEY OF BUCSES.
379
which separates
the two sides of
the mountain
forms a succes-
sion of such
beautiful little
water-falls, with
their glassy clear
green basins a-
bove, and white
foaming spray
below, that I
could have spent
hours in watch-
ing them. Re-
clining on a soft
mossy bank by the side
of one of these falls, I
had delayed as long as
possible, under the plea
of getting a sketch of
this scene, when a noise
of quarrelling at the
opening of the valley, called me away to see what
could possibly have disturbed the repose of a spot,
which I had supposed the residence of silence and
contentment. Before I could get up, a change
had come over the spirit of the scene ; the sounds of
quarrelling had ceased, and those of boisterous mer-
riment had taken their place, and the first view I
380 ROGUERY IN SOLITUDE.
got of the picture showed the whole of our party in
a full chorus of laughter, with the three hermits
standing aside, and though silent, exchanging most
angry looks with one another. W soon ex-
plained the mystery. It is the custom for visitors to
give some trifling sum to the monks in return for
such matters as they can furnish them with, which is
joyfully accepted by them, and put into the common
purse. As we had no small silver, W had given
them a ducat, and to render the present less osten-
tatious, had slipped it among the salt. One of the
elder hermits had received the salt, and bowed an
acknowledgment for the gift ; the surprise of W-
therefore, was very great on arriving at the bottom
of the valley, to find the two others following with
melancholy faces, and soon after to hear their com-
plaints, that we had given them nothing. " What,
do you consider the gold piece I gave your com-
panion as nothing ?" asked W , angrily. " Gold !
companion!" burst from the astonished hermits,
and in a few seconds they had flown to the cavern,
dragged out the offending monk, and were hauling
him by the collar to be corrected by W , buffet-
ing and abusing him handsomely by the way, when
I first heard them. The change to a laugh may
easily be understood : — the old rogue was obliged
to disgorge his treasure, and we were left to reflect
on the moral ; — the which, probably, every one
turned to support his own pet theory of morals
in general. Musing on such matters we silently
KALIBASCHEN LOVERS. 381
retraced our steps through the wild valley, repassed
the sentinel, and were again on the narrow moun-
tain road leading to Terzburg.
The sun was just setting as we crossed the fron-
tier, and we had still a long ride before us, with
the prospect of passing a considerable part of it in
the dark. Notwithstanding all the haste we could
make, darkness overtook us; but instead of in-
creased danger, as we had feared, increased safety
came with it, for the horses had become so cau-
tious, that they scarcely made a false step the whole
of our ride back.
As we approached the rude villages of the Kali-
baschen, the notes of a very simple mountain air
were borne on the winds, and fell so soft and sweet
on the ear, that we could scarcely believe ourselves
in such a savage neighbourhood. " Ah !" said Herr
von L , as he caught the sounds, " the young
Kalibaschen lovers are not inclined to lose this fine
evening: the music you hear,js from their Alpine
horns, and is an invitation to their sweethearts to
come out to some well-known rendezvous to meet
them. The Alpine horn is the Kalisbaschen's sub-
stitute for billets-doux and waiting maids." We
little thought, as we passed these savages in the
morning, that they had been capable of so much
poetry ; but what cannot love make poetical ? Our
friend said the horns were the same as those used
by the Swiss peasants ; and he described them as
long wooden pipes made by the people themselves,
382 FORTIFIED CHURCHES.
and producing very harsh sounds if heard near. It
was late when we arrived at Terzburg; but the
carriages were waiting for us, and, after thanking
Herr von L for his attention and politeness, we
pushed on, and were soon deposited at our inn in
Kronstadt.
Our route to Hermanstadt led us along the foot
of the Carpathians nearly the whole distance. In
many parts, the aspect of the country is curious,
for the secondary ridges and valleys, running at
right angles from the centre chain, are most nu-
merous, and present, on a gigantic scale, the idea
of ridge and furrow, rather than of a succession of
mountains.
We passed several trains of waggons on the road,
heavily laden with articles of luxury from Vienna,
going to Kronstadt and the neighbourhood. Colo-
nial produce seemed to form the bulk of their
contents. Most of the waggons were drawn by
twelve horses each. We were much struck with
the number of fortified churches we observed in
this country. Almost every village churchyard is
surrounded by a strong wall, with battlements and
port-holes, and they are often strengthened by
towers and other means of defence. The history of
Transylvania gives but too clear an explanation of
the causes of these precautions, and their frequent
occurrence brought the picture of former times
very forcibly before us. It requires little imagi-
nation to conceive the wild Moslem hordes pouring
FORTIFIED CHURCHES, 383
down the passes of the Carpathians — perhaps sent
to enforce the tribute which some bold, but luck-
less prince had ventured to refuse, or perhaps urged
by the love of plunder only — sweeping over the
smiling plains of the Harom-Sz£k and Burzenland
and driving away in one mingled crowd the simple
inhabitants and their flocks and herds. It is easy
to imagine them, as these incursions become more
frequent, raising round the village church the village
fortress— the watchman taking his stand on the little
tower, and every peasant listening as he drives his
plough for the sound of the alarm-bell. The first
glimpse of the turban on the mountain-top is suffi-
cient. The warning has gone out — and now the
crowd of frighted women and children, the pant-
ing cattle, and the anxious, but firm peasants,
headed probably by their humble pastor — for the
Saxons boasted no lordly chivalry — all bend their
hurried steps towards the consecrated fortress. The
forces of the enemy are composed of cavalry, and,
resistless as they are in the open field, they find the
Saxon peasantry a formidable enemy behind their
churchyard wall, for they are ready to die to save
their wives and daughters from the feared and
hated infidel. Exposed on one side to the Tartar,
and on the other to the Turk, this beautiful but un-
happy country was subject to every misery which the
warfare of savages can inflict — how frightful a list !
Many a romance of real life must these villages
have witnessed ! To this day the Transylvanian
384 FOGARAS.
mother stills her restless child with threats of the
Tartars coming — " Ihon jonnek a Tatarok !"*
We got no further than Fogaras that evening,
and it was with the greatest difficulty that we could
procure any accommodation there. I think the
inns are worse in this part of Transylvania than
anywhere else, notwithstanding the much greater
prosperity of the country in general. Perhaps I
remarked this deficiency the more, because I stood
the more in need of their accommodation ; for, in
crossing a small river in the dark, the driver had
managed to overturn my carriage, and I had got
a sound ducking in consequence. Although inha-
bited by Saxons, and surrounded by the Saxon-
land, Fogaras belongs to the Hungarian counties.
On this subject the Saxons are very sore, and they
say, and with much appearance of reason, that in
depriving them of this district, Government has
violated the conditions of several grants and char-
ters in their favour.
We reached Hermanstadt early enough to walk
round its pretty promenades, and admire the
almost Dutch neatness with which everything is
kept. The town itself — the capital of the Saxon-
land — though tolerably well built, and possessing
a handsome square, has a dull and stagnant appear-
* It is said to have been an amusement of the Tartars, to set
the Hungarian children before their own little ones, that they
might exercise themselves in cutting off heads — an important
practical branch of Tartar education.
HERMANSTADT. 385
ance. Hermanstadt is the head-quarters of the
commander-in-chief of the troops in Transylvania,
and of course of the staff. Several departments
of the Government, as the Customs, Post-super-
intendence, &c., are located here, but notwith-
standing these helps, Hermanstadt is not what it
was. The overland trade through Wallachia has
almost disappeared, and with it the best days of
Hermanstadt.
The first objects we visited on the morning after
our arrival were the museum and gallery of Baron
Bruckenthal. It has always been one of the pecu-
liar privileges of greatness to choose great instru-
ments for effecting its purposes, and in none was
this more remarkable than in Maria Theresa. This
prudent queen, setting aside all the prejudice which
exists in Transylvania against the Saxons, raised for
the first time in the history of that country, a Saxon
— Baron Bruckenthal — to the supreme adminis-
tration. Hermanstadt became the seat of Govern-
ment. Bruckenthal built a splendid palace ; formed
a large collection of pictures, and a very valuable
library of thirteen thousand volumes, and at his
death bequeathed the use of them to the public.
We found the pictures scarcely deserving the high
character we had heard of them, but they are quite
as good as those found in many second-rate Ger-
man and French towns, and they are well worth
attention, as they form the only collection in the
country. The library is in excellent order, and
VOL. n. c c
386 ROTHEN THURM PASS.
most freely open to all comers. In the museum we
were most struck with the specimens of washed
gold ; indeed, it is probably in this particular the
most complete existing, and contains in itself an
explanation of the whole subject of gold washing.
I should recommend all lovers of fine scenery
who may visit Hermanstadt, to extend their ram-
bles as far as the Rothen Thurm Pass, one of the
most romantic of the valleys which connect Tran-
sylvania and Wallachia. Not that I did visit it on
the present occasion, for I had seen it before, and
the recollection of ten days' dangerous illness spent
in the quarantine there, was hardly an inducement
to make me return. The valley, however, is most
beautiful, the rocks are bold and precipitous, the
woods rich, and hanging over the sides of the moun-
tains, and occasionally the most beautiful green
glades intervene, that either poet or painter could
desire. It is by this beautiful valley that the Aluta
makes its escape to the Danube, and it forms one of
the most curious instances I know, of a river passing
completely through the centre of a vast mountain
chain. At present, the Aluta is of little value ; for,
in spite of the orders for removal of mills, by the
Prince of Wallachia, its course is entirely obstruct-
ed by them. Whether this river could ever be made
navigable as far as Transylvania I much question,
— its bed is for miles and miles nothing but a suc-
cession of rocks,— but in Wallachia itself, it will
become of the greatest importance.
WALLACHIA AND MOLDAVIA. 387
I scarcely know whether I ought to make a
digression here, and tell my readers something of
Wallachia and Moldavia, or pass on without further
notice of them ; I trust, however, I may be allowed
to intrude a short notice of these Principalities ; for,
though I know the subject may be called foreign
to the title of my book, yet the fate of these two
countries has been so intimately associated with
that of Hungary, and for the future, must, I believe,
be still more so, that a few words on the matter
may not be thrown away.
Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia, lying be-
tween ancient Poland, Hungary, the Danube, and
the Black Sea, have in turns, for many centuries
past, acknowledged the supremacy of one or other
of the great powers on which they border. Hun-
gary, I believe, still claims a right to the suzerainty,
though Austria yielded up her claim about a cen-
tury ago to Turkey. Of late years, these provinces
have been governed by princes nominated by the
Porte from among the worthless intriguing Greeks
of the Fanar. By the treaty of Ackermann, how-
ever, Bessarabia was given up to Russia, and with
it the command of the mouths of the Danube ; and
still more recently, Russia has extended her pro-
tection— under the plea of similarity of religion — to
the other two provinces, and obtained a declaration
of their independence from the Porte, in which
however, Russia and Turkey are named as protecting
powers. By this act, they are allowed to elect their
c c 2
388 WALLACHIA AND MOLDAVIA.
own princes, vote and levy their own taxes, and in
fact govern themselves entirely according to their
own fancies, provided always, that nothing is done
contrary to the interests of the protecting powers.
From the moment this act was signed, Russia has
never ceased her endeavours to extend her own
influence, and destroy that of Turkey in these pro-
vinces ; they now seem at every moment in danger
of falling completely into her hands. Gratitude for
assistance given to enable them to escape the
Moslem yoke, at first rendered the extension of this
influence an easy task, but as the Wallachians and
Moldavians began to feel a new burthen galling their
shoulders, and saw that every day bound it only the
more tightly to them, they hesitated, remonstrated,
and finally positively refused to support it longer.
A constant series of acts of oppression and injustice
had rendered the morality of the Boyars, — as the
nobles of these countries are called, — both private
and political, a subject of mockery even for Rus-
sians ; but the insolence of Baron Ruckmann,
the Russian Consul-general, has found the means
of awakening them to a sense of their duty, and
they have at last staunchly refused to sanction
acts which they declare contrary to their rights
and liberties. Of course, all resistance, except that
of moral power, is impossible. Turkey can offer
no assistance, and, as they say, " England and France
are a long way off."
The population of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bes-
WALLACHIA AND MOLDAVIA. 389
sarabia is almost exclusively of Dacian origin ; that
of the two former provinces amounts to nearly
1,500,000, that of the latter probably is not more
than 20,000. I have travelled over a considerable
part of Wallachia and Moldavia, and I never saw
two countries, of their extent, so rich in productions,
so fruitful in resources. The land is of the very
richest quality; the greater part of it an alluvial
plain, like the Banat of Hungary, with a climate
the most favourable for production. Yet with all
these advantages, I never saw a country so thinly
populated, nor a population so excessively poor and
miserable. I had pitied the Wallacks of Transyl-
vania till I saw their brethren of the Principalities,
and found that there were those who might envy
them their lot. Years of monopoly, oppression,
and insecurity have worked out these consequences.
With respect to Bessarabia I cannot speak from
personal observation, except of that part which
borders the Sulina branch of the Danube, and it
is little better than a vast morass. The greater
part of the country is, I believe, of much the same
nature, and it could be valuable to Russia therefore
only in as far as it gave her a command of the
mouths of the Danube, and tended to make the
Black Sea a Russian Lake.
My readers will probably see now why Wallachia,
Moldavia, and Bessarabia concern Hungary. One
of them is already in the hands of Russia, and
commands the only exit for the productions of
390 WALLACHIA AND MOLDAVIA.
Hungary ; the other two are ready to fall into
the hands of Russia whenever she chooses to seize
them, and they form the frontiers of Hungary on
the east.
While I am writing this, the news of a great
treaty concluded between England and Austria *
has just reached me ; and I find by one of the
articles that vessels coming from the ports of Wal-
lachia and Moldavia, are to be received on the
same terms as if coming from Austrian ports.
At last, then, Austria has roused herself and
engaged England fairly in the cause. The meaning
of that article is simply this : — " Russia shall not
extend her possessions on the Danube further than
she has done already." The necessity for the pro-
vision is absolute. Hungary possesses no port on
the Danube, that is, no vessel from the Black Sea
can possibly come up to any Hungarian town on
the Danube and discharge her cargo ; if, therefore^
Hungary is desirous to establish an outlet for her
productions by means of the Danube, it can only be
* Of course I allude to the commercial treaty, negotiated with
so much talent by Mr. Macgregor. It is with great regret and
astonishment I have seen a question raised in the House of Com-
mons about the meaning of the article referring to Wallachia, and
still further confusing the question by mixing it up with the new
Turkish treaty. It has been asked, if Turkey will consent to, or
if Turkey can, extend her new customs to the Principalities.
Turkey has nothing whatever to do with the Principalities in such
matters, they are entirely free to make any regulations or treaties
of commerce they please with any foreign power.
WALLACHIA AND MOLDAVIA. 391
done by keeping the ports below the Iron Gates
open to her merchants. This has been threatened,
first by the duties Russia attempted to impose on
vessels entering the Danube, and, on the failure of
that, by the gradual filling up of the Sulina mouth,
by neglecting the cleansing which was always
carried on by the Turks, and latterly, it is said,
by the sinking, as if by accident, of some flat-
bottomed boats. This scheme was again threatened
with counteraction by the formation of a canal or
railroad from the Danube to the Black Sea, and
it was therefore but reasonable to suppose that
Russia would exert her influence with the Princes
to throw still further impediments in the way,
much as it would have been to their injury. There
were only two ways of opposing this, either by en-
gaging England in the maintenance of the security
of these provinces, or in at once seizing on them
herself. The first has been adopted for the pre-
sent; let us inquire if the second may not be-
come necessary hereafter. The interests of Europe,
of humanity, require that the ambition of Russia
should receive a check: I will not waste one line
in arguing a proposition which is not questioned
by a single man of sense and feeling in Europe.
She is preparing the way for future conquest in
the south of Europe, and to these conquests Wal-
lachia and Moldavia are the high road. These
countries have no force which would enable them
to resist her invading army a single day, nor is
392 WALLACHIA AND MOLDAVIA.
it possible that for centuries they can have : they
have neither the physical means which a mountain-
ous and wooded country afford, nor have they
those moral aids — proud historical recollections,
legends of liberty, or the character which long
habits of independence give — and which have en-
abled small knots of men to retain their place
as nations when threatened by the most power-
ful with extinction. For their armies they have
a few hundred men each — "not for fighting," as
one of their own officials told me ; " that others do
for us," — but for keeping up a system of quarantine
which, as far as possible, destroys their trade and
cuts them off from all communication with the
Turks. Independent, therefore, these provinces can-
not be: the question then is, to whom shall they
belong. Turkey is not only unable to hold them,
from the ancient hatred they bear to the enemies
of their faith, but the extension of her frontiers
beyond the Danube rather tends to weaken than
strengthen her. No one who is anxious to save
Europe from the flood of barbarism which threatens
to overflow her from the North, would leave them
in the grasp of Russia. Hungary, then, is the only
power which could hold them with safety to her-
self and others. Let Hungary offer the Principali-
ties a frank union, a fair share in the advantages
of her constitution, and an equality of rights and
privileges, and I have no doubt the Wallachians
would gladly join themselves to a country which
THE SAXON LANGUAGE. 393
could guarantee them a national existence, civil
and religious freedom, and an identity of material
interests. Hungary too would gladly accept a share
in the trade of the Black Sea, and might probably
be induced to give up her claims on Gallicia for
such a compensation, — and then, with constitutional
Poland reinstated in her integrity on the one side,
and constitutional Hungary intervening on the other,
the fears of invasion from absolute Russia would
be an idle bugbear unworthy a moment's fear;
but from no other combination can Europe ever
be safe.
But to return to Hermanstadt and the biedere
Sachsen. The Hermandstadters are said to be of
Flemish origin, and they have got a strange notion
that the extraordinary dialect they commonly con-
verse in has a strong resemblance to English. It
might have been Hebrew for all I could understand
of it. I believe there are not less than seven dis-
tinct dialects among these Saxons, all supposed to
have been derived from the different parts of Ger-
many from which they originally came. They all
spell and write German as it is now spoken. Here
as elsewhere, Luther's Bible has formed the lan-
guage after its own image, but even in reading the
Bible they translate it into the common dialect. It
is a common joke against the Saxons to ask them
how they spell bqffleisch, — their name for bacon, —
and they answer by spelling the classical German
word s-p-e-c-k, calling it at the same time boffleisch.
394 TRANSYLVANIA.
Even in the pulpit the clergyman reads in the
vulgar dialect.
When we left Hermanstadt and passed through
more of the Saxon-land, we had still further reason
to admire the habits and character of this people as
exhibited by outward appearances. Never in my
life did I see more flourishing villages than theirs ;
even the Wallacks who have settled among them
have caught something of their spirit, and look al-
most comfortable and happy. The houses are well
built, and though only of one story, they are always
raised some feet above the ground, and are reached
by a flight of steps. The gable end, which is turned
towards the street, generally bears the date of its
erection, the cipher of the builder, and, according to
a good old Puritan custom, a verse from the Bible,
recommending its inhabitants to the care of Provi-
dence. The people were well dressed, and we
passed in the course of the day a great number of
smart lads and lasses, the former with bunches of
flowers in their broad-brimmed hats ; the latter
with showy jackets and their hair braided and
ornamented with flowers most tastefully.
And now, reader, we have passed Reismark and
Miihlenbach, said adieu to the land of the Saxons,
and are again among the Magyars at Karlsburg
in my favourite valley of the Maros. I have no
need to describe our route any further, as we have
passed over it twice before. I believe we have
now visited the greater part of Transylvania, very
TRANSYLVANIA. 395
imperfectly of course, and I can safely say of it,
in the words of a German writer — "There is per-
haps no country which has not some beauties to
exhibit, but I never saw any which, like Transyl-
vania, is all beauty," — welches so wie Siebenbiirgen
ganz Schonheit ware. And many as were the little
discomforts, and inconveniences we have been ob-
liged to put up with, we have managed to pro-
vide against them tolerably well. While writing
up my notes of this past day, I cannot, if I look
round me, complain of any great misery, or at least,
I cannot feel very unhappy about it, do what I
will. Krumme Peter's apartment is certainly far
inferior to his entertainment, but it contains three
beds, and the servants have just covered them with
our own linen; a supper of roast fowls and salad
has satisfied our hunger, and the wine is neither
sour nor weak ; and now that I see Niklos has
filled my chibouque with choice Latakia, and rested
its delicate amber mouthpiece on my pillow, mixed
my cool draught of eau sucrt and placed it with a
novel by my bedside — why I believe I shall go to
bed and read, and smoke for the next hour in as
perfect a state of ecstasy as if my couch was down,
and its hangings of most costly materials.
TRANSYLVANIAN GROOM AND HOUSEMAID,
CHAPTER XII.
KLAUSENBURG IN WINTER.
Transylvanian Hospitality. — Klausenburg. — Transylvanian In-
comes.— Money Matters. — The Gipsy Band, — Our Quarters. —
The Stove.— The Great Square.— The Recruiting Party.— A
Soiree. — The Clergy.— The Reformed Church. — Religious
Opinions. — The Consistory. — Domestic Service. — County
Meeting. — Count Bethlen J£nos. — Progress of Public Opinion.
—The Arch-Duke.— The Students and Officers — Climate.—
— Separation of three Counties. — The Unitarians. — Habits of
Society. — The Ladies. — Education — Children and Parents. —
Divorces. — Casino and Smoking. — Funerals. — Schools. — The
Theatre.
WINTER set in with all its rigour, and we de-
termined to remain quietly at Klausenburg, at least
HOSPITALITY. 397
for some time. I pass over the presentation of
introductions and the necessary formalities of mak-
ing acquaintance. An Englishman, who is only
accustomed to the stiff, though well-meant forms
of English society, can have little idea how a
stranger is received here.
The first, family we visited, invited us to take
our dinner and supper regularly with them when
we had no other engagement. " You will find few
persons in Klausenburg just at present ; the inns
are very bad, and therefore, whenever you are not
engaged, we shall expect the pleasure of your
company at two o'clock for dinner, and at nine
for supper." Nor was this a mere ceremony ; for
if we missed one day, a servant was sure to come
the next to invite us. With such a reception I
need scarcely say we soon felt ourselves at home at
Klausenburg.
But I believe I have never told the reader what
sort of a place this Klausenburg is. Well then it is
a pretty little town of about twenty-five thousand
inhabitants, situated in the valley of the Szamos,
and overlooked by hills on every side. It is built
round a large square, in the centre of which stands
the fine old Gothic cathedral. From this square,
almost all the streets run off at right angles. The
streets themselves
taste, and^the^ houses, jhough handsome, are often
of only one story, and never more than two.
The old walls, gates, and towers which formerly
398 KLAUSENBURG.
guarded the town, are in great part standing, and
I believe they even still close some of them at night.
The Szamos does not run through the town, and
it is well it does not ; for it is a strange unmanage-
able river, and might carry it away in some of its
sudden inundations. On the opposite side of it,
however, there exists a part of Klausenburg, if such
a title can be given to a collection of miserable huts,
which cover the side of the hill. They are, for the
most part, holes scraped out of the soft sandstone
rock, with a little projecting thatch over the door.
This wretched place is inhabited by gipsies and
dogs. 1 unite the two, because, in an excursion
I made into this region, I found more of the latter
than the former, and it was not without some diffi-
culty that I escaped from them.
Though, generally speaking, Klausenburg can
lay no claim to figure as a European capital, yet
it possesses some few houses which would make a
respectable appearance in London or Paris. It is
very rare, however, that their owners occupy the
whole of them, — a part is generally let off to
others. Although many of the Transylvanian nobles
have immense estates, including twenty or thirty
villages, there are very few of them who are not
deeply in debt, and very much harassed for ready
money. Six per cent, is the maximum of legal
interest, but ten is more generally paid for loans.
In matters of business the generality of the Tran-
sylvanians are mere children. There is not one in
MONEY MATTERS.
399
fifty who can tell you the amount of his own in-
come or expenditure. You are often surprised to
hear a man of ten thousand acres, talk of receiving
only seven or eight hundred pounds a-year in rents,
and you are still more surprised when you hear that
so small a sum maintains such a household as you
see him keeping up. On inquiring a little further
into the matter, you find he has not calculated
as income or expenditure, all the corn and hay
his twenty or thirty horses consume, all the game,
poultry, fruit, bread, wine, and fire-wood, used in
the family : " Oh ! that is nothing," he answers, if
reminded of these matters ; " that all comes from
my own estates." He reckons income what he re-
ceives in hard cash ; expenditure, what he lays out
in hard cash.
In all Transylvania there is not a single banker.
A retail tradesman, who has very large affairs with
Pest and Vienna, will give money on bills, and un-
dertakes the transmission of considerable sums, for
a per centage; but of regular bankers there are
none. Even this person will not receive deposits
of money, unless paid five per cent, for keeping
them ; for he says they are of no use to him — he
can do nothing with them. Imperfect laws, which
render the recovery of debts difficult, is the real
source of this inconvenience, but the habits of former
times tend much to keep it up. When the country
was subject to civil war, or to Turkish invasion, it
was then, as it is still in Turkey, considered prudent
400 GIPSY BAND.
and economical to hoard up gold, or lay out large
sums in plate and jewels, so that in case of an
attack, they might be easily hidden, or carried off.
The same feeling still exists here, and it is not un-
common for ladies with an income of five hundred
pounds per annum, to possess more jewels than an
Englishwoman of ten or twenty times that fortune
would dream of. The quantities of pearls and
diamonds with which some of the Hungarian ladies
load their national costume, is quite out of all pro-
portion ; to me they forcibly recalled the bead-
decked dresses of the savages of the South Sea
Islands, — Heaven defend me, though, should they
hear that I have said so !
At one of the first dinner parties to which we
were invited, the attendance of the gipsy band was
ordered, that we might hear some of the Hungarian
music in its most original form. The crash of sound
which burst upon us, as we entered the dining-
room, was almost startling; for be they where
they may, gipsy musicians make it a point to spare
neither their lungs nor arms, in the service of their
patrons. This band was one of the best in the
country, and consisted of not less than twenty or
thirty members, all of whom were dressed in smart
hussar uniforms, and really looked very well. Few
of them, if any, knew notes, yet they executed
many very difficult pieces of music with consider-
able accuracy. The favourite popular tune the
Rakotzy, — the Magyar " Scots wha hae," — was given
WINTER QUARTERS.
401
with great force. I am more than ever convinced
that none but a gipsy band can do it full justice.
The effect of the melancholy plaintive sounds with
which it begins, increased by the fine discords which
the gipsies introduce, and of the wild burst of passion
which closes it, must depend as much on the manner
of its execution as on the mere composition. It
is rather startling to the stranger, on arriving at
Klausenburg, that no sooner is he lodged in his inn,
than he receives a visit from this gipsy band, who
salute him with their choicest music to do honour
to his coming ; and it is sometimes a little annoying
to find that he cannot get rid of them without paying
them most handsomely for their compliment.
In December we left the inn, and got into very
comfortable lodgings, in the house of Dr. P ,
with a sunny aspect and a look out into the market-
place. We had altogether four rooms, for which we
paid four pounds per month. When we dined at
home, which was very seldom, they sent us in a very
fair dinner, of five dishes, from the casino, at twenty-
pence each.
The weather was intensely cold, and we were
obliged to keep large wood-fires in the stoves all
day long. The windows were double, and the
doors fitted pretty well, but we still felt it ex-
cessively cold. We were fortunate in having old-
fashioned stoves, which opened into the room, and
which, if less elegant, are much more wholesome
and comfortable than those which open on the
VOL. II. D D
402 THE STOVE.
outside. I do really think, of all unwholesome,
uncomfortable inventions, the modern Austrian, or
Russian stove is the worst. It throws a tremendous
heat into the room, of a kind which, to those un-
accustomed to it, is almost sure to produce head-
ach, and at the same time it offers no vent for
foul air. And then, as to regulating the heat, that
is next to an impossibility. The late Emperor
Francis wittily observed one day, that he believed
"it required as much talent to warm a room, as
to rule a kingdom," and I really think he was not
far from the truth, — for those who suffer the heat
have no communication with him who makes the
fire, nor does the latter ever enter the room to judge
how far the heating is needed ; in fact he knows
about as much of the feelings of those he alter-
nately starves and stews, as an absolute monarch
of the wants and necessities of those whom he
paternally misrules.
In a house we were staying at for some time,
the daraband — fire-maker — was deaf and dumb,
and all he could be made to understand was,
that the rooms required heating. Whenever this
poor fellow wished to show his liking to any
one, he always did it by keeping the stove hot
the whole day. By some means or other, it ap-
peared that we had attracted his especial favour,
and we soon found ourselves in danger of being
roasted, from pure kindness.
The cause of this daraband's loss of speech and
THE GREAT SQUARE. 403
hearing is curious. Till the age of thirty he had
full possession of all his faculties ; but, at that
time he met with a severe fall, which is supposed to
have injured the brain, and which left him quite
deaf and dumb, and partly idiotic. When very
much excited, however, by passion, he has once or
twice been . heard to speak, and that too, distinctly
and well, but immediately afterwards he relapsed
into his former state.
Those who love looking out of windows, would
scarcely choose Klausenburg as a winter's resi-
dence. Even in our great square, we found but
little variety. The old cathedral was opposite us,
and would be a fine building, if its base was not
obscured by shops. There is a shabby pillar also,
intended to commemorate the visit of the late
Emperor to Transylvania ; and these are the only
objects of architectural pretension for the eye to
rest on. As for variety of colour, there is none.
Everything is covered with snow; the hills, the
church, the houses, the square itself, are all snow,
and when the peasants are wrapped up in their
white sheepskin bundas, they look like snow too.
On one side of the square stands the guard-house,
and at eleven precisely every morning, a horrid
noise of metal drums brings out the Hungarian
grenadier guard, — and splendid fellows they are
too in their tight blue pantaloons, rough great-
coats, and bear-skin caps — to stand shivering in the
cold for half an hour before the mystic signs of
D D 2
404 MARKET-DAY.
changing guard can be got through. On ordi-
nary days this, with an occasional variety, — as a
horse falling on the frozen snow, or a barking clog
startling the empty square, a sledge from the
country with its four horses shaking their noisy bells
as they dash along, or an old aristocratic coach
with a pair of long-tailed prancers, and a coach-
man buried to the nose in bear's skin — is all that
the most industrious window-watcher can dis-
cover. As for the pedestrians, they do not de-
serve looking at, for they are all alike, a mass of
fur cloaks, which vary only in their being held more
or less closely to the figure, as the weather is warmer
or colder.
On market-day, indeed, the scene is somewhat
gayer ; the square is filled with small tents and
waggons, where the peasants are displaying for sale
their hay and corn, and poultry, and fire- wood,
and exchanging them for such coarse commodities,
chiefly cloth and leather, as they require. Brandy,
too, runs away with a large part of their profits ;
and few of those whom we saw so keen in haggling
for a kreuzer in the morning would in a few hours
after have sufficient sense left to guide them home.
But the greatest variety the market-day offers,
is the recruiting party. Since the violent disso-
lution of the Diet, and the refusal of the counties
to levy soldiers without a vote of supply, the Go-
vernment has been obliged to resort to recruiting
to fill up the regiments. Eight or ten smart young
A RECRUITING PARTY. 405
follows, dressed in hussar uniforms, and preceded
by a gipsy band playing the national airs, pro-
menade the town in loose order, talking and laugh-
ing with all they meet, and looking so idle and
so happy, that it is impossible not to envy them.
Every now and then the party halts, forms a circle,
and commences what is called the Werbung, or
recruiting dance. It is performed to a favourite
Hungarian air, and consists in slightly beating time
with the feet, striking together the spurs, and oc-
casionally turning round, the whole party singing
all the time. While this was going on, I saw one
sly fellow quietly steal from the circle of dancers,
and walking outside the group of open-mouthed
peasants, enter into conversation with them, and
cunningly drop his most dainty baits before all the
fish he thought likely to bite. Some of the wiser
ones turned away, or pretended not to hear him,
but two silly gudgeons were nibbling so long, that I
am much mistaken if they were not hooked. And,
indeed, it is no wonder; the music, the dancing,
the national uniform, and the long spurs — almost
all that constitutes the pride and pleasure of an
Hungarian peasant's life, seem within his grasp;
and when to these are added the fourteen shil-
lings smart-money, it is enough to upset the
sternest virtue. The Hungarian peasant, however,
always enlists on the understanding that he is
to be a hussar, that he shall have a horse, and
wear spurs and blue pantaloons; and bitter are
406 OCCUPATIONS.
the poor fellow's tears when, as is often the case,
he finds himself on foot, and for his comely national
dress, is forced to assume the hated breeches and
gaiters of the Austrian infantry.
Our usual mode of passing the day, after the
simple breakfast of one tiny cup of coffee and a
slice of bread, was in writing or taking lessons —
S in German, and I in Hungarian — till two,
which is the common dinner hour. From five to
eight or nine every house is open, and we gene-
rally paid our visits to the ladies' drawing-rooms
during that time. At nine, we found ourselves
hungry, and by no means unwilling to encounter
a supper little less ponderous than the dinner, and
then our pipes and books finished the day. This
was the first time in the course of our Hungarian
travels that we had found any real inconvenience
in society from not understanding the Magyar
language. In other places, German is the lan-
guage commonly spoken, but the Transylvanians
are too stanch Magyars for that ; and I even know
some of them who have almost forgotten their
German from pure patriotism. Twenty years ago,
German nurses and governesses were found in every
respectable house ; now French, or even English,
are almost as common.
A soirte, the first of the season, at the Countess
's, to which we were invited, laid open to us
something of the social habits of the capital. The
invitation was verbal — they seem to have a horror of
A SOIREE. 407
writing notes here — and the time half-past six.
In the first room sat a crowd of young ladies with-
out a soul to speak to them, save a stray youth
just escaped from college, or some good-tempered
old beau who had taken pity on their destitute con-
dition. In the second and third, were the usual
complement of card-tables, dowagers, and dandies,
with a few pretty women, still in the prime of life,
and the sole objects of attention. How it is that
this rigid separation should have been established
between the maids and matrons, I know not ; but I
suspect that some coquettish mammas were prudent
enough to think that a separation between mother
and daughter, at least in their cases, might be for
the benefit of both parties, the exhibition of mam-
ma's flirtations, un pen prononc£es, being scarcely
adapted to improve her daughter's innocence ; and
the daughter's fresh colour and youthful charms
being certainly not calculated to set off the waning
beauties of mamma. The refreshments were alto-
gether exotic. A large table was crowded with
tea-urns, cups and saucers, cakes and sweetmeats,
bonbons, ices, a large bottle of ruin to take with
the tea, after the Russian fashion, and I know not
what else, of tempting delicacies besides. With
some amateur music, to which no one listened, and
some honest hard waltzing, in which all took real
pleasure, a little scandal, and a little flirting, the
party broke up at ten.
With the exception of a slight tendency to the
408 DANCING.
over-gay, the ladies' dresses were just the same as
one sees in every other part of Europe ; at least,
I am sure, I could tell no difference. Dancing seems
really more of a passion here than I ever saw it
anywhere else ; and the greatest misfortune that
can happen to a young lady is, to have a paucity
of partners. A lady told me the other day, that
in her dancing times, she remembered well that she
never said her prayers for her " daily bread," with-
out adding " and plenty of partners at the next ball,
I beseech thee." How far the prayer might be an
appropriate one, I leave Theologians to decide ; but
I am sure it was a sincere one ; and I believe the
loss of the daily bread would not have appeared
more cruel than the want of partners."
On calling on the Baroness B • one day, we
found her sorrowing that her favourite maid was
going to be married."
" I shall never get so good a hairdresser again ;
and, besides, she has been with me from childhood ;
and, after all, she was much better off where she
was, than as the wife of a poor clergyman."
" What ! " I asked, " does a respectable clergy^
man marry a lady's waiting maid?"
" Oh, yes ! It is the same gentleman you have
met at my house in the country; he is a very
honest man, and thinks himself very fortunate in
getting her. She is quite as well educated, and
has picked up rather better manners than the ge-
nerality of those to whom he could aspire ; and,
REFORMED CLERGY. 409
besides, he has probably some hopes that we may
help him forward in consequence."
" Arid shall you receive your former maid at your
table, as you lately did the clergyman ?"
" Of course not : he will come as usual, whenever
we are in the country : but his wife will not dream
of such a thing. You might have noticed, that
although the lower ends of our tables are crowded
by our stewards and bailiffs, and dependants of
various kinds, their wives are never admitted."
The great body of the Protestant clergy of Tran-
sylvania are derived from the poorer classes of
society, as the peasants or small tradesmen. Those
of the towns, indeed, are often the sons of pro-
fessors, merchants, or gentlemen of landed property ;
but these form the exception, not the rule. During
the period of their education, they are commonly
maintained by assistance from the lord of the village
to which they belong, by the charity of the Pro-
testant body at large, or from the funds of the
college itself. The latter portion of the time they
remain in the schools is in part occupied in teach-
ing, by which they gain something to help out their
slender pittance.
The government of the Reformed Churches in
Transylvania approaches, in some respects, to that of
the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The whole
body of Calvinists is divided into seventeen circles,
each circle being governed by a presbyter, notary,
two laical curators, and two assistants. The eccle-
410 CHURCH GOVERNMENT.
siastical causes of each circle are judged by the
presbyter and twelve clerical assessors. The ap-
peal from the circle courts is to the General
Synod, which is composed of the bishop, the pres-
byters, notaries, two clerical deputies from each
circle, and some laical deputies from the Consistory.
The Consistory is the great council, or parliament
of the Calvinists, and meets twice a year at Klau-
senburg, to decide all the important affairs of the
Church. The Consistory is composed of deputies
(patroni), chosen thus: — The members of every
church, peasants or others, meet together every four
years, and elect two of their own body, who, to-
gether with the clergy, assembling from the whole
circle, elect two, four, or five deputies (according to
the size of the circle) to the Consistory. Besides
these deputies, the Consistory is composed of the
bishop, first notary, presbyters, notaries of circles,
professors of colleges, curators of circles and col-
leges, and all the lords-lieutenant, privy councillors,
and state secretaries belonging to that religion.
The Consistory chooses from its own body four
presidents, of whom the eldest present always takes
the chair. The election of the bishop is nominally
made by the Synod, subject to the approval of
Government; but the first notary, who succeeds
to the bishopric as a matter of course, is chosen
by the Synod independently.
The manner of nominating to a cure is this :—
If a v*rllage is in want of a clergyman, the seigneur
THE CLERGY. 411
nominates some qualified person ; that is, some
one who has gone through a course of education,
— like that described in speaking of the college of
Enyed, — and has been duly ordained ; and, if he is
approved by the bishop, he, with the consent of
the Synod, confirms the nomination. If, however,
the peasants object to his induction, or afterwards
become discontented with his services, the bishop
is obliged to remove him.
The salary of the Transylvanian clergyman is
commonly very small. Besides a cottage and plot
of ground, — an entire peasant's fief, — he receives
a voluntary payment, the amount of which is
agreed on beforehand, in part from the lord, and
in part from the peasants. It is rarely that this is
entirely in money. The peasants commonly agree
to give a tenth of their corn and wine; and the
lord, to a certain quantity of the same articles, adds
a sum of money, varying from eight to twelve
pounds. This is but a poor pittance for a man
of talent and education ; and when it is considered
that the greater part even of this depends on his
pleasing the lord of the village, we shall not be
surprised that the clergyman of Transylvania does
not occupy so dignified and honoured a position
as he ought to do. Though there are, undoubtedly,
many men of high character among them, as a class,
they are commonly spoken of by the nobles as
deficient in independence and self-respect. Nor
is this remark to be confined to the Protestants ;
412 RELIGIOUS OPINIONS.
the Catholics are equally obnoxious to it. The
very custom of admitting the priesthood to their
tables as daily guests, amiable a trait as it may
appear in the character of the nobles, without treat-
ing them as equals, has a direct tendency to con-
vert them into dependents and flatterers. Even
the higher dignitaries of the church are not always
free from the like animadversions ; and in speaking
of ecclesiastical causes, of which they are the judges,
I have often heard men of the highest character
say, that a few presents and a little cajolery, will
help them to unravel a knotty point, or solve a
conscientious scruple with astonishing rapidity.
From disregard for the professors of religion to
a disregard for religion itself is but a short step,
and I am sorry to say it is one which is often made
in Transylvania. It is a common thing, among
both Catholics and Protestants, for the best in-
formed of the young people — the old cling to the
faith and observances of their forefathers with a
fervent and sincere attachment — to speak of reli-
gion as a useful means of influencing mankind, of
Christianity as a beautiful moral system ; but there
are very few with whom I have spoken seriously on
the subject, who have not denied its Divine origin.
In fact, they seemed to think infidelity itself a
proof of a strong and enlightened mind, and were
astonished that any man of sense could really
believe the authenticity of miracles.
As might be anticipated from this laxity of belief,
RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. 413
bigotry lias few devotees. The Catholic party is
dominant, and those more immediately favoured by
the Court, it is true, are somewhat inclined to-
wards propagandism ; but, with both parties, religion
is more a part of politics than of faith. The Pro-
testants are neglected and oppressed because they
are Protestants, and such treatment has created
among them a considerable bitterness and a strong
party spirit. Of course, this is not to be wondered
at ; persecution is the best cure for indifference ;
but it is rather startling to see the man with whom
one has been arguing over-night for the credibility
of Scripture, the next morning heading a meeting
of strong Calvinists. " Why, what can you have
to do with the Consistory?" I observed to Baron
, one day when he was canvassing for a full
attendance of members at the next assembly, —
"What can you have to do with the Consistory, if
you don't believe in religion ?" "I may not believe
the dogmas of the Reformed Church," he answered,
" and yet have a strong conviction that the princi-
ples of the Reformation, the right of free inquiry,
and the duty of every man's forming his own
opinion, are just and true. What I contend for
now is the independence of our schools and colleges
with respect to any interference on the part of an
absolute and Catholic Government. In that I am
as Protestant as the best believer amongst them."
T have been sometimes at a loss whether most
to admire or deprecate the treatment and position
414 DOMESTIC SERVICE.
of servants here. A Transylvanian servant is com-
monly the child of his master's peasant, perhaps
one who has been left an orphan, and bequeathed
to his care, perhaps a playfellow of his little master,
who has been taken into the family in his very in-
fancy, and there he will probably remain till he can
serve no longer. Their wages are small, — of course
I speak of the generality, the very highest classes
are the exceptions everywhere, — those of footmen
rarely exceeding four or five pounds a-year, and
grooms and coachmen often receiving only one; but
then they are all found in clothes, linen, and wash-
ing. If a female servant wishes to marry, her mistress
provides her a handsome trousseau, and helps to fur-
nish her house ; if a man-servant marries, his wife is
very likely taken into the family, or some out-door
place is found for him. When they become too old
to serve any longer there is no idea of turning them
off, but they are commonly sent to some country
house at a distance, and maintained there for their
lives. Some gentlemen have dozens of these old
pensioners quartered on different estates ; as they
say, " it costs us but little ; for the expense of
transporting the corn we receive in rent from our
peasants would hardly pay for the trouble, and it
keeps these poor fellows very comfortably."
If this has its good side it has also its bad, for
I never saw servants more negligent and dirty than
those of Transylvania. I believe they do not rob
their masters, but they get drunk on their best wines,
DOMESTIC SERVICE. 415
lame their best horses, and probably disobey their
orders five times out of ten. Nor do I think the
familiarity with which they are commonly treated,
any more a proof of respect or of kindly feeling,
than our distance and reserve of cruelty and pride.
The more nearly the servant approaches the master
in his rights and position in society, the more
necessary it is that reserve should intervene to
keep up that deference, without which obedience
can hardly be expected. But when the servant
is of another caste, and can never approach the
sphere of those above him, the case is different, and
the more he approaches to the state of the slave,
the more he is treated with familiarity, because there
is the less danger of his being tempted to forget his
relative position in consequence of it. In America
the negroes in the slave-states are treated with in-
finitely more familiarity than they are in the others ;
but it would be absurd on that account to con-
clude that slavery is preferable to freedom, or
that the freeman's master is more cruel than the
owner of the slave. In Russia, this contemptuous
familiarity is carried to a still greater extent. A
princess of that country was once discovered em-
ploying her footman in lacing her stays, and when
remonstrated with by her more civilized visitor, an-
swered very composedly, " What can it signify ? lie
is only a servant." To a modification of the same
feeling, I attribute much of the familiarity with
which servants are treated in Transylvania, — the very
416 COUNTY MEETING.
praise of a good servant, that " he is faithful as a dog,"
is enough to prove it ; and I cannot, therefore, as
many writers have done, from seeing it in other parts
of the Continent, hold it up to admiration or imita-
tion. The good servant ought to be too much re-
spected by his master to be treated with familiarity ;
for in the dependent position which he necessarily
occupies, it could only degrade him to a mean flat-
terer, or render him disobedient and careless.
The dislike to any other livery than their na-
tional dress is very strong among the servants
here; indeed, to such an extent is it carried, that
those who wish to have servants in livery are often
obliged to hire them at Pest or Vienna. Except
the lady's maid, the female servants are commonly
dressed like the peasant women, and wear the same
substantial boots and bundas.
On the fifth of December, there was a meeting
of the county of Klausenburg, the first held since
the dissolution of the Diet. This looked as if the
Government were inclined to try conciliation, and
we heard that all the chiefs of the liberal party
were anxious that it should pass off with the great-
est quietness, but that they were resolved at the same
time to manifest a firm adherence to their rights.
The course to be adopted was determined on at a
meeting of the principal nobles at the house of Count
Bethlen Janos, — the admitted leader of the liberals;
— and it was to assemble and draw up a protest
against the dissolution of the Diet, and all the sub-
COUNT BETHLEN JANOS. 417
sequent acts of the executive, and then to separate,
with a refusal to act in any way with a Government
of which they cannot acknowledge the legality.
The meeting took place in the hall, formerly
occupied by the Diet, and which was still fitted up
as it had been during the sittings of that assembly,
with rows. of benches covered with green cloth.
The Administrator, the substitute for the Lord-
lieutenant who had resigned, took his place with
fear and trembling ; for he was aware how strong
the opposition was against him, and he did not
probably feel quite comfortable as to how the
meeting might end. After the clerks had read over
some documents, among which was the Imperial
Ordinance closing the Diet, in Latin, Count Bethlen
Janos rose. Added to an exceedingly fine counte-
nance and striking figure, Bethlen Janos possesses
a voice of greater depth and sweetness than I ever
remember to have heard. His manner is calm, but
earnest and persuasive in the highest degree. He
is generally accused of being too lazy to take such
an active share in public affairs as his talents and
eloquence demand of him. That could not be
charged against him, however, on this occasion. He
had been suffering from ague for several months
previously, and was actually under the influence of
the fever while he was speaking.
His task was a difficult one. A considerable
number of Szolga-birok, magistrates, who had been
fairly chosen in 1833, in consequence of the cessa-
VOL. II. E E
418 COUNTY MEETING.
tion of the county meetings, had not been able to
give up their offices, as they were bound to do, at
the end of the year, and go through a new elec-
tion ; they had now been three years in office. All
these men were anxious to come forward and re-
sign ; but as it was determined that nothing should
be done, of course their re-election could not have
been made, and probably Government would have
appointed a set of corrupt bureaucrats in their places.
The quiet dignified manner, and calm reasoning of
Count Bethlen, seemed to have its effect. Some
of the friends of Government tried to counteract
his wise counsel by stimulating the more uncom-
promising of the opposition to a violent course-
but it was in vain ; the moderates carried the day.
A committee was appointed to draw up a protest,
and the meeting adjourned. Many of the best
speakers had been drawn off by similar meetings
having been called together in several other coun-
ties. After Bethlen Janos, the best speakers were
Baron Kerne* ny Domokos, Zejk Joseph, and Count
Teleki Domokos. The speeches were generally very
short, and in consequence the speakers found it
frequently necessary to rise and interrupt in order
to explain their meaning more fully, which pro-
duced some confusion in the debate.
Even among the liberal party, different opinions
have been formed as to the prudence and wisdom of
the extreme measures of Baron Wessele'nyi, which
led to the violent dissolution of the Diet on the
POLITICAL PRINCIPLE. 419
part of the Government. Many of those who had
followed his steps while successful, were anxious
to escape from the path into which their fears and
not their convictions had drawn them. Others,
too weak to oppose the torrent in the height of
its flow, now began to make themselves heard ;
and there were many who believed that a more
cautious, if less direct, course would have been
attended with more favourable results. Perhaps
these opinions are right, and on the spot, I was
much inclined to agree with them myself; at the
same time, it is impossible to deny that the prin-
ciples of Wessel^nyi if too advanced both for the
Government and the mass of his countrymen, were
in themselves noble and high. The attempt to
carry them out at that moment may have been
imprudent, untimely ; but they have had the effect
which all high party principles have, of engen-
dering sentiments of disinterested nationality and
generous devotion to the public good. A few
years ago, Government would have been right in
counting on love of place as stronger than love of
principle ; but a public conscience has been called
into action ; he that could get the most was not
the most esteemed — and as was seen in the mo-
ment of action, even men of doubtful conduct no
longered dared to leave the straight course, so
strong was the public feeling against any derelic-
tion from public duty. For this the country has,
in a great measure, to thank Wessele"nyi, and I
E E 2
420 THE ARCH-DUKE FERDINAND.
am not sure that it is not the greatest boon he
could have conferred on it.*
Nothing can be conceived more uneasy than the
state of society here at the present moment. Poli-
tics have completely divided the most intimate
friends, so that it is difficult to form even a dinner
party without bringing opponents together. The
Arch-duke and his small band of officials, together
with the whole of the military, are sent to Coven-
try by the greater part of the nobility. Many
ladies not only refuse to attend at his palace, but
will not go into society where he is invited. Of
course this has no tendency to soften the Arch-
duke's feelings, and many tales are afloat of the
harsh things he has said. That he is a most dan-
gerous enemy of constitutional rights is beyond
all question. Only a short time since, in answer
to a remonstrance from one of the most moderate
* Later events have still further confirmed this opinion. The
Transylvanian Diet was called together again in 1838, at Her-
manstadt, and almost all the points formerly refused were re-
demanded, and finally obtained from the Government. The Diet
firmly refused to elect the Arch-duke for governor, and he has in
consequence left the country. Many of those gentlemen who gave
up their places on the dissolution of the former diet, have been
re-elected by the present one, to still higher posts ; the election
of the president, and the publication of the debates, have been
yielded without opposition, and it is to be hoped, that in future
the country and Government will cordially unite in amending
the institutions, and ameliorating the condition of this beautiful
country. The first act of the Diet was to appoint a commission
for the reform of the laws affecting the peasantry.
OFFICERS AND STUDENTS. 421
of the opposition, on the illegality of some ordi-
nance just issued, he observed, " Das erste Gesetz
ist des Kaisers Befehl, — the first law is the Em-
peror's will," — a sentiment too absolute to find an
echo even within the walls of the Seraglio.
These feelings of dislike to the Court and its
party, have, been strongly called forth by an occur-
rence which took place in the theatre within these
last few days. As a young student was passing out
of the theatre, at the same time with a number
of officers, he pushed against one of them — rudely
in all probability, and not quite unintentionally,
for between officers and students there is a great
hatred, — when the officer and several of his com-
panions drew their swords, attacked the unarmed
boy, and wounded him severely. In England, the
officers would have been tried for murder; here,
they were commended by their superiors, and the
student thrown into prison. Now though, for my
own part, I fully agree with the Transylvanians
in regarding such an act with the greatest horror,
it is but just to the Austrian army to give the
reasons by which they attempt to justify it. If
an Austrian officer receives an insult and does not
avenge it, he is looked upon by his comrades as
a coward; if he fights a duel, he is broken by
his commander ; and therefore, to redress his own
wrongs the moment they are inflicted is the only
plan by which he can escape dishonour or punish-
ment. It is still difficult to conceive, however, by
422 CLIMATE OF TRANSYLVANIA.
what sophistry it could be considered fair to use
arms against an unarmed man.
Towards the middle of January the cold became
excessive. At eight o'clock in the morning of the
tenth of that month, the thermometer stood at
twenty-two degrees of Reaumur, or fifty degrees of
Fahrenheit below freezing. This is a greater de-
gree of cold than has been known at Klausenburg
for many years ; indeed it is colder than a common
winter at St. Petersburg. The winter in general,
however, is exceedingly severe in Transylvania, and
I know no better instance to prove how much other
circumstances, besides the latitude, influence the
climate of a country. Klausenburg is thirteen de-
grees south of St. Petersburg, and five degrees south
of London ; yet, owing to its geographical position,
it has five months winter of almost arctic severity.
The contrast is rendered still more striking when
we recollect that the summers here are so hot as
to produce the grape and water-melon in the open
air.
This was the first time I ever felt a really painful
cold, and on going out I found it affect my eyes
severely. The breath froze on the moustache and
whiskers, and though I heard of no noses being
lost, several ladies had their ears frozen in close
carriages, as they were going out to parties. The
bread they brought us in the morning was mostly
frozen, and we heard that the liqueurs had frozen
during the night, and broken their bottles. I was
UNITARIANS. 423
surprised one day to see a peasant, who was talk-
ing to another in the square, resting his hand on
the head of a roe-buck, which appeared so tame
that it stood quietly by his side ; but in a few se-
conds, when the men parted, I was still more
astonished to see him set the animal exactly in the
same position on his shoulders, and walk off with it.
In fact all the game and meat was frozen, and re-
quired a gradual thawing before it could be used.
A considerable sensation has been excited of late
by a report that three counties of Transylvania,
formerly belonging to Hungary, are to be restored
to that country. The Transylvanians do not seem
to relish this plan much ; they say these counties
are eminently Protestant and liberal, and if taken
away, the opposition would be so much weakened
as to be in danger of extinction, — others, again,
hope it may only be a prelude to an union of the
whole of Transylvania to Hungary, which would be
a means of strengthening the latter country, and
would insure the Transylvanians also a more strict
observance of their rights, though the rights them-
selves might be somewhat restricted by it.
We had a visit one day from Szekelly Moses Ur,
the professor of Theology in the Unitarian College
here. Professor Szekelly told me he spent a short
time in England some years back, and visited most
of the Unitarian congregations. At the Unitarian
College in York, he was much astonished at the
wealth of the professors ; the first " had 300/. a-year,"
424 UNITARIANS.
and the two others 150/. each — " but England," said
he, " is a rich country ! " " How much have you
then, if you consider that such excessive wealth ? "
I asked.
" We have 30/. a-year each and rooms in the col-
lege, and there are few professors here better paid
than we are/'
Professor Szekelly estimates the Unitarians of
Transylvania at forty-seven thousand. In the col-
lege there are two hundred and thirty students, of
whom one hundred are togati, and follow the higher
branches of learning, the rest classisten, mere boys.
There are professors of Mathematics, Philosophy,
History,* and Theology, besides six preceptors un-
der them. We visited the college and church, the
latter of which is a handsome building and kept in
good order. The form of service is the same as that
maintained in all Protestant dissenting churches.
Unitarianism was introduced into Transylvania by
Isabella, daughter of the King of Poland, and wife of
the first Zapolya, and it was under her regency, dur-
ing the minority of her son, that they obtained equal
privileges with the other professors of Christianity.
Blaudrata, the physician of Isabella, is said to have
taught her the doctrines which Servetus was pro-
mulgating in Italy. For some time Unitarianism
remained the religion of the Court, and of course,
it soon became the religion of the courtiers. Since
that time, however, many changes have occurred,
* The Unitarians have also Gymnasia at Thorda and Keresztur.
WOMEN OF TRANSYLVANIA. 425
by none of which have the poor Unitarians gained.
Their churches have been taken away from them
and given in turns to the Reformed and the Ca-
tholics. Their funds have been converted to other
purposes ; the great have fallen away and followed
new fashions as they arose, and the religion is now
almost entirely confined to the middle and lower
classes. It is in the mountains of the Szekler-land
that this simple faith has retained the greatest
number of followers. Here, as elsewhere, they are
said to be distinguished for their prudence and
moderation in politics, their industry and morality
in private life, and the superiority of their education
to the generality of those of their own class.
The habits of society in Transylvania, in many
respects, differ little from those of England about
the end of the last century. The ladies usually
pass their mornings in attending to the affairs of
their households, or in listening over their embroi-
dery to the news of the day which a neighbouring
gossip has kindly brought to them. Some of them,
it is true, spend these hours at the easel or the
drawing-table, and others store their minds with
the choicest products of foreign literature. In
addition to a pretty good circulating library which
Klausenburg already contains, the ladies have lately
established a book-club among themselves, in order
to insure a better supply of new books. I know
many ladies to whom the names and works of all
our best classics are familiar, either in the originals
426 DOMESTIC MANNERS.
or translations, and there are very few who cannot
talk learnedly of Byron and Scott. This may not
be thought to show any very great proficiency in
literature, but I am afraid if we were to ask English
ladies how much they know — not of Hungarian
writers — but of those of Germany even, we should
often find their knowledge still more shallow.
The education of children is for the most part
committed to the mother's care. In the richer
families she is aided by a governess and a master,
in those less rich the whole duty rests on her, but
in no case is it left entirely to the care of strangers.
Boarding-schools are almost unknown ; and the boys
are consequently committed to the care of private
tutors, often priests or clergymen, till fit to be sent
to college. It is a great misfortune that the whole-
some lessons which pride so often receives in public
schools, cannot be enjoyed by these children. Too
often their tutors are little more than their servants,
and they are consequently brought up with an over-
weening idea of their own consequence, and of the
inferiority of all around them. Count Sz^chenyi
has given a humorous description of this sort of
education, and its effects, which is worth quoting.
Although intended for Hungary, and a little exag-
gerated, there are not wanting instances even in
Transylvania to which it might be well applied.
" Many of our children, from their very infancy,
have always been attended by a couple of hussars,
whose labour has been to praise their little master's
DOMESTIC MANNERS. 427
every act in hopes of adding a trifle to their wages
by their servility — albeit they have rarely succeeded
in that matter. Has the little count walked half a
mile — oh, what a pedestrian he will make ! Has he
got through an examination — private of course, —
and are his parents in office — what a great man he
will turn out some of these days ! If the young
gentleman, attended by a handsome suite, pays a
visit to his fathers estates, everybody is in waiting
to receive him, and he sees things only in their
holiday dress. Suppose his studies now finished —
that is, his private tutor dismissed — and he sets out
on his travels to gain a knowledge of the * world.'
He pays a visit to Count N , to Baron M ,
to the Vice Ispan H , and to Squire F ; he
passes through a good part of his father-land, finds
horses everywhere ordered for him, and is sure to be
well received wherever he presents himself, and so
between visits to his friends and a few weeks' bath-
ing at Mehadia or Fiired, manages to get through
the summer. After a six weeks' residence in Venice
and Munich, to complete his knowledge of foreign
'Weltweisheit? — world- wisdom — he returns home,
and is appointed to an office already waiting for
him. And now he plays the great man ; he knows
his father-land, has travelled into foreign countries,
talks about the English Parliament and the French
Chambers, and enlightens his hearers with his
opinions on these matters. Then he tells them in
how sad a state France is, how her agriculture is
428 DOMESTIC MANNERS.
fallen, and darkly hints that Great Britain may yet
be ruined by her steam-engines and machinery !"
From some of these dangers the education of the
women is free. Left entirely to a mother's care, or
taught by a foreign governess under her eye, there
is little chance of their falling into these errors;
nor indeed, as they are excluded from political
employment, is it worth the Government's while to
interfere for the sake of checking a mental deve-
lopement which it so much fears in the other sex.
i I must do the sons and daughters ofjlungary the f
credit to say, that in no^ country is the behaviour j
. of the child to the parent more__ respectful than in
Hungary^ This partly depends on the habits incul-
cated in early life. From infancy the child is
taught to kiss^ the parent's hand _as_its^ordinary
salutation, and the morning and evening greetings
are considered matters of duty, and punctiliously
fe1 It is pleasant to see the
married daughter kiss the mother's hand and receive
| her blessing as she leaves for the night, and in the
morning to find her in attendance to offer her parent
the first salutations on the coming day. Nor is the
Wstom which places the mother at the head of the
daughter's table, and which makes her almost mis-
tress of the house when she visits her child, less
soothing to the feelings of one who has long been
looked up to as the directress of all about her. T
have often been surprised to observe the absolute
silence maintained by grown-up sons in the presence
SOCIETY. 429
of their fathers, and I have sometimes been sorry
wherTI have seen them sacrifice, if not their political
sentiments, at least the conduct which those senti-
ments would have dictated, to the feelings and
prejudices of old age. Great as is the respect we
owe our parents, the duty we owe our country is
more sacred still.
Society, at least during the winter, occupies a
large share of the ladies' time and attention. After
dinner they commonly make their visits ; in summer
they drive out to the Volks Garten, or some other
place in the neighbourhood, and still later either
receive visitors at home, or go out to spend the
evening with some of their friends. Though more
domestic in their habits than the French, they are
not such slaves to their firesides as ourselves. It is
not thought a misfortune to ppend an evening alone,
but it is more commonly passed in society.
The conversation of small towns is very apt to
run into scandal and tittle-tattle, and Klausenberg
is certainly not free from the imputation ; but if
the weeds of the social system find a soil for their
nourishment here, its flowers are not less plentiful
and luxuriant. There are womenjn Transylvania
.whose accomplishments and manners would render
them the ornament of any society in which the]
might be placed. Nor is the general tone of con-
versation much lower in its intellectuality, — what- 1
ever it may be in refinement, — than inimostother
countries. I was particularly struck by the freedom
430 RIGHTS OF WOMEN.
with which political and religious discussions were
often carried on before ladies here, and by the
interest and share they took in it. In Transylvania,
I never heard a lady insulted by an apology for
speaking in her presence of subjects which interested
her husband, father, or brother. Perhaps the next
sentence may explain the cause of this.
The position of women in Hungary and Transyl-
vania, with respect to their civil and even political
rights is very different from what it is with us.
We have already remarked, when speaking of the
Diet at Presburg, that the widows of magnates have
the right of sending a deputy to sit, though not to
speak or vote, in the lower chamber ; and in the
county meetings, the widows of all nobles can send
their representatives to act in their names. Their
civil rights, — that is, of the married women or
widows, for the maid remains a minor and ward of
her nearest male relation, should she live to the age
Methuselah — are still more important. ^An^Hun-
garian lady never loses her maiden name, and even
during her husband's life, actions at law regarding
her property are conducted in her name. Over her
property the husband has, byjaw no right whatso-
ever; even the management of it she may retain
in her own hands, though she rarely or never does so.
In cases of divorce, where the character of the
wife is unimpeached, the whole of the children are
left in the care of the mother till the age of seven,
and the girls during their whole lives.
THE CASINO. 431
Divorces are far from uncommon among the
Protestants of Transylvania ; for except when at-
tended by scandalous disclosures, which is rare,
both law and custom mark them as unfortunate
rather than disgraceful. They are commonly ob-
tained by the wife against the husband on the
plea of ill treatment, inveterate dislike, impossi-
bility of living together, or the employment of
threats or force to accomplish the marriage — any
of which are sufficient in law — and she retains all
her property and rights unimpaired. It is curious
that very few cases occur in which they do not
marry again quite as well as before.
The Casino at Klausenburg, if less splendid than
its elder brother in Pest, is at least equally hospit-
able : our names were put down, and we were
free of it as long as we chose to stay. The ladies
complain that their drawing-rooms are sadly de-
serted since the establishment of the Casino ; the
attractions of pipes, cards, billiards, conversation,
and books, seem' to have beat those of beauty. It
is rare to go into the Casino of Klausenburg during
the evening and not find its rooms full. If I com-
plained that the Casino of Pest was invaded by
the pipe, what shall I say of that of Klausenburg?
Its air is one dense cloud of smoke, and it is easy
to detect any one who has been there by the smell
of his clothes for some time after. Such a smoking 1
ti^n^s^this^Ijiever saw ; the Germans are novices ]
to them in the art. Reading, writing, walking, or J
432 SMOKING.
riding, idle or at work, they are never without the
pipe. Even in swimming, I have seen a man puff-
ing away guite composedly. A coachman thinks
it is a great hardship if he may not smoke as he is
driving a carriage, although it may happen that the
smoke blows directly into the face of his mistress.
The meerschaum is cherished by the true smoker
with as much care as a pet child : when new, he
covers it up in a little case of soft leather that it
may not be scratched, and he smokes it regu-
larly and with great caution, that it may take
an equal colour throughout ; and when at last it
has obtained the much -esteemed nut-brown hue,
with what pride does he exhibit and praise its
beauty ! A meerschaum, engraved with arms, is
one of the common presents between intimate
friends ; and some of them are worked with ex-
quisite taste and skill. The most common tobacco
bag is a part of the skin of the goat, and is often
ornamented with rich embroidery.
The most luxurious smoker I ever knew, was a
young Transylvanian, who told us that his servant
always inserted a lighted pipe into his mouth the
first thing in the morning, and that he smoked it
out before he awoke. " It is so pleasant," he ob-
served, " to have the proper taste restored to one's
mouth before one is sensible even of its want."
I am sorry to say smoking does not confine itself
to the Casino or the bachelor's bedroom, but
makes its appearance even in the society of ladies.
FUNERALS. 433
In some houses, pipes are regularly brought into
the drawing-room with coffee after dinner, and I
have even heard of a ball supper being finished
with smoking. I never knew a lady who did not
dislike this custom ; but they commonly excuse it
by the plea that they could not keep the gentlemen
with them if they did not yield to it. It is but
justice to say, however, that there are drawing-
rooms in Klausenburg from which this abomina-
tion is rigidly excluded, and where the gentle-
men are still happy to be allowed to make their
bows without a similar permission being extended
to their meerschaums.
S was present at the funeral of Count
R , and has given me some curious particulars
of it. Count R was a Protestant, and the
greatest part of the ceremony took place in his
own house. After a short service, and a general
sermon to all those invited to the funeral, the
clergyman proceeded to address each one of the
mourners separately and by name. He began with
the nearest relative, — in this case the widow, — and
after enlarging on the virtues of the deceased, as a
husband and father, pointed out the consolation
she might derive from the reflection, and when at
last she was quite overcome by her feelings, she
was led out by two of her friends, and the next
of kin was then addressed in the same way, and so
on through the whole company. Such a ceremony,
if well conducted, gives the clergyman a great
VOL. II. F F
434 SCHOOLS.
opportunity of correcting the faults and failings of
individuals in circumstances when admonition is most
kindly received ; but as in our own funeral sermons,
it too often ends in a mere panegyric of the deceased,
without regard to his deserts, or to the edification of
the hearers. To speak impartially under such cir-
cumstances would often be cruel, and is scarcely possi-
ble in any case : in Transylvania it is rendered still
more difficult by the handsome present the clergyman
commonly receives for his services on the occasion.
I was taken by the Baroness B to see a
school in which she felt great interest, and in the
foundation of which she had taken a considerable
share. This school was for children of all religions,
and had been established to enable the poor Pro-
testants and others to educate their children with-
out having them tempted to become converts to
Catholicism, of which they were in danger in other
places. The system pursued was that of Lancaster,
and it seemed to succeed well. They only attempt
to teach the first elements of education, as far as
learning is concerned, but what is of more impor-
tance, religious and orderly habits are insisted on.
The services of the day are begun and ended with a
prayer and hymn, and the reading of select passages
from the Bible. Among the children were Calvin-
ists and Unitarians, Catholics, Greeks and Jews, —
the latter only taking no part in the religious acts.
There are other schools for the poorer classes,
founded by the Baroness Josika, a lady of great
THE THEATRE. 435
enterprise and public spirit, to whom Klausenburg
is indebted for many very useful institutions.
In spite of not understanding a word that was
said, I went several times to the theatre as a matter
of duty. I cannot say a great deal in favour of the
acting, but I really do not think it was worse than is
seen in the provincial theatres of most other coun-
| tries. Klausenburg was the first town that could
boast of a regular Magyar theatre, and may there-
fore claim to have exercised no slight influence in
extending and polishing the language. I met Mr.
Jancso, the first Hungarian actor who ever distin-
guished himself, the other day at dinner at the
Countess W 's. He is said to have enjoyed great
popularity in his day, and to have fully deserved it.
He is now old, and, like so many of our own past
favourites, but very ill provided for. Whenever the
Countess W , however, is in town, Jancso is
sure of a good dinner, as there is always a cover
laid for him at her table.
Having sufficiently recovered from a slight hurt I
had received about the middle of January, which the
cold had aggravated into a rather troublesome affair,
I began to think of moving ; and we accordingly de-
termined to bid adieu to Klausenburg and spend the
carnival in Pest. In truth, the unhappy divisions
which politics have caused in society renders Klau-
senburg anything but a pleasant residence just at
present. It is idle to say that such matters should
have nothing to do with our enjoyments — where
F F 2
436
PARTY FEELING.
great interests are at stake every legitimate means
of exercising moral influence must be employed ; the
renegade, the seller of his conscience, must be ex-
cluded from the drawing-room, as he is from the
senate; must be shunned by the women as he is
despised by the men. But necessary as all this may
be, it is far from pleasant, and we therefore deter-
mined to bid it farewell, hoping that the moderation
of the people, and the returning good sense of the
Government, would in a few years restore to Klau-
senburg its former character of one of the gayest
little places in the world.
OLD TOWER AT KLA.USEN BDRG.
THE POET. 437
CHAPTER XIII.
WINTER JOURNEY ACROSS THE PUSZTA.
Return to Pest. — A Poet. — Travelling comforts. — The Car-
riers.— Gross Wardein. — Prince Hohenlohe. — The Italian. —
Paprika Hendel. — Great Cumania. — The Cumanians and
Jazygers. — The worst Road in Hungary.
ON the 24th of January, we bade adieu to Klau-
senburg and took the road to Pest. It was Friday,
and many were the evil predictions of our kind
friends; but a bright morning, and the thermo-
meter as high as 18° below freezing of Fahrenheit,
were not to be neglected. While changing horses
at Nagy Kapus, the first post, we were saluted in
Italian by an important-looking personage, who in-
formed us that he was a poet, and who inquired in
return if we were not the Englishmen who, he heard,
were wandering about the country. We were but
too proud to acknowledge the identity, when he
assured us he had already informed his literary
society of the strangers' visit to these distant
lands, and begged our names and titles, that he
might make no error in any future mention of
us! It appears that he had served in the Aus-
trian army during the wars of Napoleon, and was
438 TRAVELLING COMFORTS.
received a member of some learned society at
Milan, since which period he has been continually
writing poetry, which no one reads.
In spite of an invitation to stay the night at
Banffy Hunyad, we determined to push on for
Gross Wardein as quickly as possible. We had
a bright moon, and its rays falling on the snow
with which everything was covered, left us no-
thing to desire as far as light was concerned.
The cold we did not fear, for we had taken
very effectual means to guard against that. It is
only in really cold countries that man knows how
to keep himself warm. Our heads were well pro-
tected by a kalpak, or high fur cap, the whole
body enveloped in a bunda or fur cloak, the
hands in fox-skin gloves, and the feet and legs in
a sack of thick cloth lined with sheep-skin, decid-
edly one of the happiest efforts of human genius.
Bless that sack ! for during four days and a night
in the midst of snow, travelling among wooded
mountains, and over extensive plains, our happy
toes rejoiced in an uninterrupted state of a most
felicitous insensibility to cold.
From Hunyad to Nagy Barod, the road, equal
to a good English turnpike-road, follows the valley
of the Sebes Kb'rb's, one of the prettiest in Tran-
sylvania, terminating in a fine pass, beyond which?
from the height above Nagy Barod, the whole
plain of Hungary lay before us. While waiting
here till the post-mistress had run over the scat-
CARRIERS. 439
tered village to make up the number of horses, —
for we were now in Hungary, and the post was no
longer so good as in Transylvania — we went into
the little inn in hopes of obtaining some apology
for supper. The only room was fully occupied ;
in one corner lay the landlord, and in a box, sus-
piciously near, his handmaid Julie ; on the floor
were scattered, apparently, heaps of sheep-skins
and boots, but in fact, a number of carriers on
their way from Klausenburg to Pest, and all so
fast asleep, that walking amongst them failed to
disturb their slumbers. These, however, were the
master carriers ; their waggons, horses, and dri-
vers, were filling the snow-covered yard through
which we had passed. I class the horses, men,
and waggons together, as they all reposed quietly
in the snow together, and seemed all equally in-
sensible to its cold. In winter, when the Theiss
and Maros are frozen, these carriers form the only
means of commercial intercourse between Hun-
gary and Transylvania. They have generally a
train of light waggons, each with eight or ten
small horses, and carrying perhaps 40 to 50 cent-
ners per waggon. The whole distance from Pest
to Klau^ejibm^j^QmTe^,_in summer, from ten to
twelve days, and four^e^n_Jn^baj__wjeather, and the
charge is from four to five shillings per centner,
according to the state of the roads, for the whole
journey. The carriers themselves are most trust-
worthy, nor is there any danger from robbery.
440 PRINCE HOHENLOHE.
These men go up to Vienna when the goods from
the Leipsic fair arrive there, and carry them di-
rectly to Klausenburg ; in fact, all the commerce of
the country passes through their hands. A person,
twenty years engaged in this trade, assured us he
had never known a robbery of his waggons.
A little thin soup, and a well-garlicked sausage
again fortified us for the road, and we reached
Gross Wardein by eleven the next morning, — more
than eighty miles in the four-and-twenty hours.
/ Gross Wardein is really one of the prettiest little
towns I have seen for a long time. Its wide, well-
builtstreets of one-storied houses, and extensive
market-places, are quite ^o the taste of the Magyar,
who loves not the narrow lanes and high houses
of his German neighbours. But the glory of Gross
Wardein is in its gilded steeples, its episcopal palace,
its convents, and its churches ; and although of the
latter, the seventy which it formerly boasted are re-
duced to twenty-two, they are quite sufficient for the
eighteen thousand inhabitants it contains. Prince
Hohenlohe, of miracle-working memory, is now the
occupant of this see. His elevation to the bishop-
ric, has, however, completely extinguished the light
of miracle: some say that the old Emperor gave
his reverend highness a strong hint that such ex-
hibitions were but little to his taste, and begged
that Gross Wardein might not be made the scene
of his pious humbugs. Only a few months since,
a gouty old Englishman, a man of education and
LE CIRCONSTANZE. 441
family, astonished the inhabitants of this little town,
by informing them that he had come all the way
from England to be cured of his gout by the Prince.
Some of those who told me of it, touched their
foreheads, nodded significantly, and seemed to think
the poor gentleman's malady was not confined to
his toes. On finding his errand bootless, he posted
direct back as he had come, without troubling him-
self with looking at any object on the way.
Three hours were we obliged to wait at Gross
Wardein for horses. As I was strolling alone
through its wide streets, with that particularly kill-
time lounge, common to all travellers detained
against their will, a " Sense, signore " introduced me
to a pair of bright black eyes, which recalled me
at once to the banks of the Arno or Tiber, and
which belonged to a very pretty woman, whose
appearance indicated that she belonged to that
demicaste, half lady half not, the members of
which are so often sacrificed to their own vanity
and our egoism.
" Perhaps il Signore is going to Italy."
" Not at present."
" Che, disgrazia ! I had hoped you were going
there, and would have taken me with you. I have
been here for some months, and am so tired of
hearing nothing but Hungarian, and seeing nothing
but snow, that I would fain be once more back
in dear Florence : I should never wish to travel
again."
442 B A RAND.
Of course, I regretted a thousand times that fate
should have denied me the pleasure of restoring
those bright eyes to their native sun, and could not
help inquiring, what had led them so far away from
their destined orbit ?
" Le circonstanze, signore? — with a deep sigh :
" but now I should like to go back." The deuce
is in those " circonstanze ;" — I never yet saw a
pretty woman in a difficulty who did not accuse
" le circonstanze " of the whole affair.
Though it was one o'clock before we started, for-
tune favoured us with very good horses, and we made
forty miles before nine, which brought us to Ba-
rand. There was not an elevation of two yards the
whole distance, and the road, except during the last
stage, was excellent; nor did we miss it then, for
we drove without fear over the frozen snow, some-
times following the track of former wheels, some-
times the fancy of the peasant or his horses, but
always at a capital pace. In no part of Hun-
gary are the villages so large, the peasants so rich,
and the horses, consequently, so fat and strong, as
on the plains.
Thefogado (inn) at Barand, was none of the best;
the rooms were cold, there was nothing for supper,
^and the landlady was ill in bed; nevertheless, we
soon got the stove heated, a good dish of paprika
\Jiendel before us, and enjoyed a night of most
luxurious sleep. I do not think I have yet en-
lightened the reader as to the mystery of a paprika
PAPRIKA HENDEL. 443
hendel; to forget it, would be a depth of ingra-
titude of which, I trust, I shall never be guilty.
Well, then, reader, if ever you travel in Hungary,
and want a dinner or supper quickly, never mind
the variety of dishes your host names, but fix at
once on paprika hendel. Two minutes afterwards,
you will hear signs of a revolution in the basse cour ;
the cocks and hens are in alarm ; one or two of
the largest, and probably oldest members of their
unfortunate little community, are seized, their necks
wrung, and, while yet fluttering, immersed in boil-
ing water. Their coats and skins come off at once ;
a few unmentionable preparatory operations are
rapidly despatched — probably under the traveller's
immediate observation — the wretches are cut into
pieces, thrown into a pot, with water, butter, flour,
cream, and an inordinate quantity of red pepper,
or paprika, and very shortly after, a number of bits
of fowl are seen swimming in a dish of hot greasy
gravy, quite delightful to think of. I have not yet
f quite made up my mind, whether this or the gulyds-
hus — another national dish, made of bits of beef
stewed in red pepper — is the best ; and I therefore
recommend all travellers to try them both. These
hot dishes suit the Hungarian : red pepper, the growth
of Hungary, he considers peculiarly national : and,
\ excepting ourselves, I believe he is the only Euro-
mean sufficiently civilized to know the full value of
that most indispensable article of culinary luxury.
Our first post next morning, still over the sea-
444 THE CUMANIANS.
like snow-coyeredplain, brought us to Kardszag,
a large and prosperous village of eleven thousand
inhabitants. I call it a village, for though I be-
lieve it enjoys the privileges of a market town, its
cottages built of mud, perhaps shaped into squares
and dried in the sun, its roofs of reeds, its wide
unpaved sandy roads rather than streets, and its
respectable peasant-looking inhabitants, render it
almost a perversion of language to call it a town.
/^"It was Sunday, and church (for they are mostly
Protestants on the plains) was just over; a number
of men, among the best-built andjnostjbandsome qf^
anjpart of Europe, were standing round the Town-
)iQuse_after morning service, while several troops of
fcjiihlrenjj3ajcl^^
returning from school. / It was pleasant to see the
little fellows, so smart and comfortable did they look
in their red Hessian boots, wide white trousers, and
lambskin coats or cloaks, which quite enveloped
them, and rendered them not unlike the little
animals whose robbed fleeces they wore.
We were so struck with the easy look of the
people, and the neatness and apparent comfort of
jthe cottages, that we asked who was the owner
of the place ? One of them, politely baring his fine
head of long black hair, fastened up with a comb,
told us, they served no one^buJL their_kin^ : they
[were^ Cumaaiajis. In different parts of Hungary
there are certain districts, of considerable extent,
enjoying immunities and privileges which place
THE CUMANIANS. 445
them in a very different position from the rest of
the country. Among these, the most important are
Great Cumania, of which Kardszag is the principal
place ; Little Cumania ; the land of the Jazygers ;
and the Haiduk towns ; all forming portions of the
great plain.
The inhabitants of the first three of these districts
seem to have a common origin, though the dates
of their settlement, — those now called Jazygers,
under Ladislaus the First, in 1090 ; the Great and
Little Cumanians, severally, under Stephan the
Second, in 1122, and Bela the Fourth in 1138,—
are sufficiently distant. Hungarian historians are
still in doubt as to the precise country formerly
occupied by these people, and even as to their
original language. There can scarcely, however, be
a question that they have sprung from the same
eastern stem from which the Magyars themselves f
branched off, and that their language was essentially /
the same. At the present day, in no part of
Hungary are the language, manners, and feelings
of the people more truly Magyar than among the
Cumanians.
In all these districts, the peasant is himself lord
of the soil, and owns the land ; he is, therefore, free
from the annoyances of personal service, and is in
the enjoyment of the innumerable advantages of
propriety. His deputies sit in the Diet. It is true,
that in return for this, he bears more than an equal
portion of the burthens of the state. With the
446 THE WORST ROAD.
noble, he is bound to do military service when
called on, and to contribute a part in the extra-
ordinary subsidies occasionally granted by the Diet,
while with the peasant, he pays an equal portion
of the heavy Government taxes. Notwithstanding
these severe drawbacks, he is undoubtedly the most
prosperous and happy of the Hungarian peasants,
a sure proof, — and would that legislators knew it,
— that it is less the amount, than the manner of
taxation, in which its real oppression consists.
From Szolnok, where we passed the third night,
we had still a long day's journey, of at least sixty
miles to perform. The first stage to Abany has the
reputation of being the very worst road in Hungary,
and to those who know what Hungarian roads are,
such a reputation is not without its terrors. A
gentleman, whom I can well believe, assured me
that he had occupied sixteen hours in travelling
over these ten miles in a light carriage drawn by
twelve oxen. The soil is a rich, black, boggy loam,
and the road consists of about thirty yards' width
of this substance, separated from the ploughed land,
on each side, by deep ditches, to prevent the tra-
veller driving over the furrows, which he would
certainly prefer as the better road of the two.
The inhabitants always urge as an apology, that
there is no stone except at an immense distance,
and this is true ; yet I think in some other coun-
tries, and even here with more just laws, the basalt
of Tokay would have found its way down the Theiss
THE WORST ROAD. 447
to their assistance ; but as long as the whole bur-
then of making roads rests on the shoulders of the
unfortunate peasants, the proud noble must be con-
tent to stick in the inud. We were fortunately
favoured by the frost, and got over it in four hours.
We now approached the capital, and with the aid
of six horses, a little extra borra valo to the Ms biro,
to procure the horses quickly, and to the peasant
to flog them unmercifully, we reached Pest by the
evening.
HUNGARIAN LADY IN HER NATIONAL COSTUME.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE CARNIVAL IN PEST.
A Ball. — Ladies' Costume. — Luxury and Barbarism. — Univer-
sity of Pest. — Number of Schools. — Austrian System of Edu-
cation— its Effects. — Corruption of Justice. — Delays of the
Law. — Literature. — Mr. Kolcsey. — Baron Josika. — Arts and
Artists. — The Theatre. — Magyar Language. — Mr. Kb'rosi and
his Expedition to Thibet. — Trade Companies. — Popular Jokes.
— Austria, Hungary, and Russia. — Blunders of Mr. Quin and
other English Writers on Hungary. — The last Ball of the Car-
nival.— Tne Masquerade. — The breaking up of the Ice.
" WELCOME back to Pest, friends ! you are just
come in time for all the gaiety." Such was the
salutation of Count D as he met us on the first
A BALL. 449
morning of our return. " I have two balls for you
to-night, and several others during the week. I
know what you are going to say, that you are
not acquainted with any of these philanthropic ball-
givers; but I will arrange all that for you; I will
write a note to the Baroness O to say I shall
bring you to her house this evening, and I will
there introduce you to everybody you ought to
know, so that the whole affair will be settled as
ceremoniously as even a ceremonious Englishman
could wish !" Although we pleaded hard for a few
days' rest, before launching on this sea of pleasure,
D protested the carnival was too short for a
wise man to lose a day of it, and therefore, we had
nothing for it but to submit in peace.
About nine the same evening we found ourselves
ushered by an hussar, dressed in blue and silver,
into a splendid ball-room, brilliant with light and
beauty. Our reception was as kind as well-bred
hospitality could make it, and on looking round we
soon found a number of faces we had met before,
and all ready to offer us a kind welcome back.
And now I confess myself fairly puzzled. I sup-
pose I ought to describe this ball, — but what points
am I to seize on, by which to distinguish it from a
ball anywhere else? There is not a dress or a
costume of any kind, that differs a particle from
those of London or Paris; not a dance, save the
waltz and quadrille ; not a gait or movement, that is
not common to ladies and gentlemen of any other
VOL. II. G G
450 A BALL.
country. There may be some of those fine shades
of distinction which the delicate appreciation of a
woman's mind might seize and work upon, but I
must confess to my grosser apprehension, the cha-
racteristics of good society vary so little in any
part of Europe, that but for the furniture of the
room, or the language spoken, I should scarcely
know a ball in one great capital, from a ball in
any other. An elegant suite of rooms, well lighted,
a good band of musicians, a number of pretty girls
and their mammas, with a proportionate quantity
of men, free from the vulgarity of dandyism, and
especially when the whole party is acquainted and
all are perfectly at their ease, are always sufficient
to compose a pleasant ball anywhere. On this
occasion the presence of a reigning Prince gave the
ladies an excuse for displaying their most brilliant
parures of diamonds, and the heads of many of them
literally blazed with jewellery.
I am afraid the Hungarian ladies must plead
guilty to a little more than common affection for
these pretty baubles. Nor, indeed, can it be won-
dered at, for their national costume is so co-
vered with them, and they are allowed by all the
world to look so lovely in it, that it is no wonder
if they think the jewels have some influence in
the matter. And this reminds me that I have not
yet said a word about this costume, although to
have omitted it would have brought on me a
frown from every pair of bright eyes in Hungary.
LADIES' COSTUME. 451
Let me premise, however, that this dress was not
worn at the ball at the Baroness O 's, nor in-
deed is it ever used, except at court or on public
occasions, as the installation of a lord lieutenant or
other great ceremony.
The full dress of the Magyar nemes asszony, —
noble Hungarian lady, — is composed of a tight
bodice, laced across the breast with rows of
pearls, a full-flowing skirt, with an ample train, a
lace apron in front, and a long veil of the same
material, hanging from the head to the ground
behind. The dress is composed of some rich bro-
cade, or heavy velvet stuff. The head, neck, arms,
and waist, are commonly loaded with jewels, and
the veil and apron are often richly embroidered, after
the Turkish fashion, in gold. The only difference
between the married and unmarried is, that the
latter have no veil, and, instead of the small cap,
from which the veil hangs, their hair is braided
with pearls.
But to return to the ball. I was rather amused
with the tactics of the Hungarian ladies as I ob-
served them this evening. I had heard that the
tone of society in Pest was not so strict as it
might be, but I protest it was not only quite as
strict, but even a little more so than would have
suited my taste. I could not see a symptom
even of an innocent flirtation ! and I almost doubt
if one could be carried on with any degree of
satisfaction ; for it is the fashion for two ladies
G G 2
452 A BALL.
to walk and sit together, so that go to whom you
will, there is always a third person in the conver-
sation ; and I refer to any man experienced in such
matters, if it is possible to utter sweet nothings
with due effect, except as the Germans say, unter
vier Augen — between four eyes. Nor is this cus-
tom confined to the young ladies, the dowagers are
equally cautious ; not one of them ventures into a
ball-room without her friendly guardian. In some
cases it was amusing enough to mark how know-
ingly this choice had been made, — how the beauty
had chosen her contrast in the plain and humble —
how the friend of the pretending was the modest
and unassuming.
To us, as strangers, French was the language in
which we were commonly addressed, but amongst
themselves German was universally used. Some of
the younger members of the party spoke English
fluently, and one of the little children of the house,
only four years old, seemed as well master of it as
we were. I am afraid it would not be saying much
for the conversation, if I pronounced it as good as is
met with in drawing-rooms elsewhere ; but in truth,
where dancing is so serious a business as here, there
is but little time for talking.
The suite of rooms thrown open was handsome
and well adapted to the purposes of a ball. The
first room was filled with dancers, who slid over
the well-polished floors to Strauss' quickest airs;
the second, a large drawing-room, was covered
CONTRASTS. 453
with ottomans, lounging chairs, and all the other
necessary nothings which make up drawing-room fur-
niture, while the walls were hung with good speci-
mens of English and French engravings; the third
room was half boudoir, half study, and its tables
groaned beneath the weight, if weight they can be
said to have, of heaps of annuals and books of
beauty; while the last of the suite was very taste-
fully disposed as a refreshment-room. The dancing
was kept up with great spirit -till about twelve
o'clock, when a second suite of rooms on the other
side of the ball-room was opened, and a supper
was laid out to which ample justice was done.
Supper over, and the champagne seemed to have
lent new wings to the dance ; for when we left at
two, there were then no symptoms of the party's
breaking up.
Now in all this I can see very little that is re-
markable, albeit much that is agreeable ; and there-
fore, with a hint that such things were going on
most days of the week, and that we were fortunate
enough to be at once admitted into the midst of
them, I shall leave them for a while and pass on to
other matters. The contrast, however, so rapidly
brought before us of the snow-covered Puszta and
its skin-clad peasants, with the luxurious capital
and its elegant crowds, did strike us most forcibly
at this ball. There are few places where the real
contrast between excessive luxury and abject
misery is so great as in London, but its outward
454 UNIVERSITY OF PEST.
appearance is still greater here. When we looked
at the delicate women who filled the salons of the
Baroness O , and thought of the roads they tra-
velled over, the inns they sometimes slept in, and the
rude, savage peasantry by whom they were often
surrounded, it seemed as if there must be two indi-
viduals to occupy such different positions.
Pest has a university, founded as far back as
1635, and enriched by Maria Theresa, Joseph the
Second, and Francis, with gifts of large estates, so
that its annual revenue amounts to thirty-four thou-
sand pounds. It boasts, at the present time, one
hundred and four professors, tutors, and others,
and one thousand students. There are libraries,
museums, and all the other essentials to a learned
institution. Of the professors, there are nine
theological, six juridical, thirteen medical, fourteen
philosophical, and one each for the Hungarian,
German, French, and Italian languages. The most
eminent of these is Professor Schedius, the editor
of a splendid new map of Hungary, still in pro-
gress, whose name is never mentioned without ex-
pressions of admiration and respect.
I have incidentally spoken of schools, and educa-
tion in several parts of these volumes, but the sub-
ject is so important that I trust I shall be excused
if I resume as shortly as possible the statistics * of
education in Hungary, that we may see how far the
* For most of these details I am indebted to the often-quoted
work, the " Gemalde of Csaplovics."
SCHOOLS 455
effects, as we have observed them, answer to what
might be expected from them.
It was in the reign of Maria Theresa, that a ge-
neral attempt was first made to extend education
into every town and village of Hungary. As early
as 1500, the Protestants had made great progress in
educating the poor of their own church, but during
the many persecutions to which they had been sub-
ject, their schools were destroyed, and the funds con-
verted to other purposes, so that the Hungarians,
as a nation, may be said to have been previously
without education. The system of Maria Theresa
was followed up by Joseph, who, under the name of
mixed schools, brought all sects and religions toge-
ther under the same masters. This was in itself
sufficient to excite the opposition of the Hungarians,
bigoted and intolerant as they then were ; but even
had this difficulty been got over, the mixed schools
were condemned to popular hatred by being made
the medium for the introduction of the German lan-
guage, and the consequent destruction of Hungarian
nationality. After the death of Joseph, the mixed
schools, except in some few places, were given up,
and each religion was left to educate its own mem-
bers after its own fancy, the Catholic, however,
alone receiving aid and encouragement from Go-
vernment.
At the present time there is scarcely a village in
Hungary without one or more schools. Where the
inhabitants are all of one religion, there are no
456 SCHOOLS.
difficulties to be overcome. Where differences exist,
if the separate creeds are too poor to maintain a
school each, the poorer attend that of the more
powerful, which is commonly Catholic ; the Pro-
testant children, however, not being forced to take
a part in the religious instruction, which is left to
the priest, or, still more commonly, to his capellan or
clerk. The education extends to reading, writing,
arithmetic, catechism, Klugheits Regeln, or moral
maxims, and sometimes a little geography, history,
and Latin Grammar. These schools are maintained,
and the masters chosen, by the peasants themselves,
the landlord being obliged to give ground for a
school-house, and thirty or forty acres of land for
the use of the master. The payment is for the
most part in kind and labour. There are normal
schools in different parts of the country, for the
education of masters for the national schools.**
Besides these national schools, which may be said
to be common to all religions, the Catholics have
fifty-nine Gymnasia, and six Archigymnasia, in which
the course of education lasts six years. These are
chiefly under the direction of the Piarists and other
religious orders. The easier Latin classics and
* Within these last few years infant schools, on the model of
those of England and France, have been instituted, chiefly through
the zeal and perseverance of the Countess Theresa Brunswick.
As yet, however, though they seem to have succeeded better than
could have been expected, they are too recent, and in too small
numbers, to have had so beneficial an influence as they seem well
capable of exercising.
SCHOOLS. 457
other common branches of education are taught
in those institutions.
They have also six Philosophical schools, where
Greek and mathematics are taught ; five academies,
teaching physics, logic, metaphysics, and law ; and
several seminaries for training up the priesthood,
besides the University of Pest, of which we have
already spoken.
Of the Protestants, the Reformed have the most
perfectly organized system of education. Besides
the national schools they have many Latin schools
for the peasantry, in which the course extends over
four years ; they have gymnasia also, and three
great colleges, viz. those of Debreczen, Saros Patak,
and Papa.
The chief school of the Lutherans is the Lyceum
at Presburg, which possesses sixteen teachers ; be-
sides which they have three similar institutions,
and eleven gymnasia.
The members of the Greek church are the worst
provided of any with the means of education ; but
they are said to be rapidly improving in this respect.
In addition to the Lyceum of Karlowitz, they have
four other institutions of the higher order, and
between one and two thousand elementary schools.
Now, with such machinery for educating, what is
the state of knowledge in the country at large ?
Is it greater or less than that found among the
same classes of society in our own country, where the
number of schools is much less ? I have no hesi-
458 SYSTEM OF EDUCATION.
tation in saying that it is much lower. To the
numerical philosophers — those who calculate men's
intelligence and morality as they would the distance
of the stars, — it may appear paradoxical that schools
and education should not mean the same thing ; yet
assuredly they do not. Education may be made the
means of training to ignorance as well as to know-
ledge ; and I know of no better exemplification of
this fact than the system of instruction pursued by
Austria.
Without entering into the details of this sys-
tem, let me give the reader the result of a thorough
inquiry into it made by one of our countrymen liv-
ing in Vienna. In answer to my question of what
were the effects of the Austrian education, he
answered, " In one word — stultification." " If a
student," he continued, " obtains a first class certifi-
cate, you may be sure he is a fool ; if a second,
he may be not more than ordinarily ignorant ; but
if he get only the lowest, he runs a fair chance of
being a clever fellow. The course of study is so
laborious, and at the same time the books to be
read, the comments to be listened to, and all things
to be learnt, are so adapted to shut out every idea
of what is great or good, or beautiful, that one
who has followed out the system, is not only less
wise than before, for what he has learnt ; but, from
the time that has been occupied, it is impossible
also that he should have devoted any attention to
the acquisition of better things."
SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 459
Nor do others give a more favourable report.
Even M. St. Marc Girardin, who appears rather
as the advocate of the system, states that it is
admirably contrived for preventing any develope-
ment of the higher mental faculties. The Govern-
ment, in its paternal solicitude, considers the higher
branches of knowledge unfit for the tender minds of
its children, as it might only lead them to plague
their heads about matters which are better left to
the direction of their superiors. It has accordingly
endeavoured to direct all their energies to the
cultivation of material knowledge ; and by con-
centrating their whole force on that, to raise the
country to a very high state of material develope-
ment. Admitting, for a moment, that such an
object is a wise and good one, — how has it been
answered ? Do we find the Austrian in agriculture,
in trade, in commerce, in the fine arts, in science,
or in any one thing — save perhaps, fiddling and
waltzing — before the rest of Europe ? The Govern-
ment has been foolish enough to believe that it
could use the energies of the human mind as it
would those of a steam-engine — it has been ignorant
of the well-known fact, that it is only in freedom
that the mind can work out anything pre-eminently
good, whether in the sciences, in literature, or in
the mere mechanical arts.
And yet there are many well-meaning people who
recommend the Austrian system to the imitation
of England ! No, God forbid we should imitate
460 EDUCATION NOT KNOWLEDGE.
Austria ! I allow we are as badly off for education
as a people can well be, but yet it is a thousand
times better to remain as we are than to have a
half-priest half-police directed system, which would
impose such chains on our understandings, that
through our whole lives we should never be able
to break loose from them. The advocates of the
Austrian system forget that there are other sources
of knowledge besides books, other teachers amongst
us than our pedagogues, and stronger stimulants
to knowledge than even their well-soaked birch.
It is scarcely possible to live in a populous country
like England, with a free press, and a Protestant
church, and remain very ignorant. Our ears, our
eyes, our every sense conveys knowledge to the
mind at every moment, from every object by which
we are surrounded. Reading and writing are very
useful as the keys to the door of knowledge; but
if we are not allowed to use them when we have
acquired them, we might really be as well without
them. Now something of this Austrian system has
been introduced into the schools of Hungary, par-
ticularly among the Catholics. The press, too, is
stifled by an Austrian censorship, and when to this
is united the political condition in which the
peasantry live, we shall scarcely be astonished that,
though they all go to school, and though many of
them can read and write in two or three languages,
they are yet much more ignorant, than the English
peasant who often cannot read or write his own.
LAW AND LAWYERS. 461
I know there are many of the Hungarians, — and
some of the wisest among them too, — who do not
desire that the education of the peasantry should
proceed any further till they have been placed in
a better position as to their civil rights. They fear
lest the educated peasant should become aware of
the rights he ought to have, before others have
learnt that they ought to grant them to him, and
that a revolution rather than a reform might be the
consequence. This is a sort of double-edged argu-
ment very dangerous to wield, for it may be applied
with equal force the other way ; and in England we
have too often heard of the folly of giving rights
to men not educated to use them, to allow it any
weight. I suspect there is much more danger, that
unless the peasantry do demand their rights, and
somewhat loudly too, they will never obtain them.
I do not think there is an example in history of
an oligarchy — the very essence of which is self-
ishness,— having yielded up their own privileges,
or restored to others their usurped rights, except
when they have no longer dared to refuse them.
That the Hungarians may form an exception — a
glorious exception, to such blind egoism — is my
most earnest wish ; but I would not on that account
neglect the more certain means of accomplishing
the end, should that wish remain unfulfilled.
One of my greatest neglects on my former visit
to Pest, had been to make some inquiries about the
laws and lawyers here. I had no very favourable
462 BRIBERY OF JUDGES.
opinion of them ; for I recollected that some years
before, when travelling in Austria, I happened to
fall in with a very agreeable old gentleman, who
proved to be a general in the Austrian service, and
among other subjects our conversation turned on
the advantages of the different forms of government
in our two countries. In answer to my accusation,
that the secrecy and espionnage of the Austrian
Government encouraged corruption in its officers,
and that even the administration of justice was open
to bribery, he laughed outright at my simplicity,
and assured me that the same things took place in
England, and everywhere else. Although the gene-
ral's remark did not convince me of the existence
of this corruption in England, it taught me to
what an extent it must have prevailed in his own
country, before it could have destroyed in his
mind all belief even in the purity of justice else-
where. Bearing this occurrence in mind, I in-
quired of some Hungarians the state of the supreme
courts of justice in Hungary; for as they do
not act during the sitting of the Diet, I had no
opportunity of observing them myself. I am sorry
to say, I found them but little better than those
of Austria. One of my informants said they were
not so bad, however, as they used to be ; " the
judges don't like to take bribes openly now ! "
The same gentleman mentioned an instance in
which one of his own family had bought a judge,
with the gift of an estate for the duration of his
BRIBERY OF JUDGES. 463
life. It is the custom for both plaintiffs and de-
fendants to make private visits to the judges pre-
viously to trial, in order to instruct them as to the
nature of the causes, and we can all guess what
arguments on such occasions would be likely to
have the most weight. The two highest courts of
justice are the Royal Table and Septem- Viral
Table,* the members of both of which, at least the
greater number, are appointed by the Crown. If
I am not much mistaken, they are removable also
at the will of the Crown.
The reader may be surprised that I should have
taken so much trouble in many parts of this work
to point out the corruption which pervades every
part of the Austrian administration in Hungary. I
have not done so for my own pleasure. It is no
delight to me to seek out the deformities of the
social system, and to hold them up to public gaze ;
but I have felt it in this case a duty to do so, for I
believe it is on such facts that the character of a Go-
vernment depends. I believe that no tyranny could
exercise so demoralizing, so debasing an influence
* The Royal Table is composed of the Personal (president also
of the lower chamber of the Diet), two prelates, two barones
tabulae, the vice-palatine, the vice-judex curisD, four prothonota-
ries, the crown -fiscal and three royal, two archiepiscopal, and
three supernumerary assessors. In mining causes, a mining
assessor is added.
The Septem-Viral (so called because originally composed of
seven persons), is now formed of the Palatine as president, five of
the higher clergy, ten magnates, and six gentlemen.
464 DELAYS OF THE LAW.
on the human mind, as this corruption on the part
of those whose station and power in society should
fit them to be its guides to what is good and great.
There is another circumstance connected with
the administration of justice in Hungary, which
is scarcely less grievous— I mean its long delays.
The evil is very great, when delay interferes with
the settlement of civil causes ; but what shall we
say of it when, as here, it prevails equally in crimi-
nal cases. Mr. Hallam remarks somewhere, that
there is a period in the history of nations, when
the procrastination of the law, instead of an evil,
is the only means afforded to the weak, to protect
themselves against the power and violence of the
strong. In some cases, this might appear, at first
sight, the case in Hungary ; but it should not be
forgotten, that an act of injustice, of which the
execution is thus delayed, though it loses none of
its bitterness to the victim, loses greatly in its effect
on the public mind. The tyrant obtains his end,
but the people are less shocked with the tyranny,
because they have long contemplated its possibility.
The most striking illustration of this delay which I
ever remember to have seen, was at St. Benedek,
in the valley of the Gran. About the gates of the
castle, I observed a number of very old men in
chains; and on inquiring how long ago, and for
what crime these greybeards had been put in prison,
I found they had been confined only a few months,
though it was for having excited an insurrection of
HUNGARIAN LITERATI. 465
the peasants some fifty years ago that they had been
condemned. The process had actually lasted fifty
years, and these old men were now condemned to
spend the remainder of their lives in prison, for a
crime committed in their youth, and of which all
recollection had passed away !
A dinner party, to which we were invited soon
after our return, introduced us to two of the most
distinguished among the modern literati of Hun-
gary, Mr. Kb'lcsey and Baron Josika.
Kb'lcsey has all that simplicity of manner about
him which so often distinguishes true genius. His
poetry is said to be characterised by vigour and
originality. At the present moment, he is even
more popular as a deputy and orator than as a poet.
Of course, a poet must be a Liberal in a country
where everything which can excite a poet's affec-
tions or fancy is engaged in the cause of Libe-
ralism ; and few have defended it with more
eloquence or firmness than Kolcsey.
Although Hungary has boasted poets, even from
an early period of her history, of whose works con-
siderable remains still exist; and although I feel
sure, that among the people there is an abundant
harvest of ancient lyrical and legendary lore still to
be gathered, yet it was not till the close of the last,
or the commencement of the present century, that
Magyar poetry could be said to take a stand with
that of the other European nations. During the
last half of the past century, Faludi, Raday, Barc-
VOL. n. H H
466 HUNGARIAN POETRY.
sai, R£vai, and some others, prepared the taste for
relishing Hungarian song, introduced into it a
greater freedom, and showed the capability of the
language for a higher strain than it had hitherto
been esteemed fit for. But it was Joseph's violent
attack on the very existence of the language, which
awoke throughout the nation all its sympathy and
love for it ; and the lyres of the Kisfaludis (Sandor
and Karolyi), of a Kazinczi, a Berzsenyi, a Kolcsey,
a Vorosmarty, and a host of minor luminaries,
responded to the sentiment. Hungarians speak of
Kisfaludi Sandor, with a degree of enthusiasm that
shows that he has not only been able to please the
imagination, but has known the secret of touching
a nation's heart. Vorosmarty and Kolcsey are still
living : long may they remain to adorn and elevate
the much-loved language of their father-land !
While poetry had been making these rapid ad-
vances, it was not to be expected that the influence
of the rest of Europe in the cultivation of prose
romance, should be entirely lost on Hungary. Se-
veral novelists and romance writers have arisen,
some of whose works may fairly pretend to more
than a temporary existence ; but it is admitted, that
Baron Josika Miklos has fairly outstripped all his
rivals in this contest. His first work * was " Abafi,"
* A German translation of Josika's works, (1839), now lies
before me, in eight vols. 12mo. It consists of "Abafi;" "The
LastB&thori;" "The Fickle;" " Decebalus ;" "The True Un-
true;" "The Suttee."
BARON JOSIKA. 467
a page from the history of Transylvania, under her
native princes. The time chosen is the reign of
the weak and vacillating Bathori Zsigmund. In
addition to considerable power in the delineation
of character and the illustration of a high moral prin-
ciple, which Baron Josika always proposes to him-
self in the plot of his novels, Abafi contains some
delightful sketches of the past. The wild romantic
life of the border robber stands in bold contrast
with the quiet and domestic scenes of the interior
of a noble and virtuous household. Old Klausen-
burg, too, is brought back in lively colours before us,
as history and its present remains assure us it was
at that period. "The last Bathori" is another
historical romance, which takes Bathori Gabor,
Prince of Transylvania, for its hero. The picture
of manners during a period (1608 to 1613) of almost
constant intestine war, aggravated in some instances
by hatred of race, is drawn with vivid colouring.
The domestic virtues of the Saxons, among whom
a great part of the events take place ; their firm
adherence to their rights, and their brave opposi-
tion to the tyranny of the Transylvanian princes ; the
cruel and insulting persecution to which they were
subjected, and the lawless violence which was em-
ployed against them when there was no longer need
of their arms, or purses, are admirably brought into
play. Nor, to those who know the country, is it
less gratifying to perceive the sentiments of kind-
liness which have animated an Hungarian writer on
H H 2
468 ARTS AND ARTISTS.
a subject in which Hungarian prejudices are sin-
gularly strong and susceptible. Of the other works
of Baron Josika, I need not speak, as they want
the charm of nationality, and that impress of truth
and reality, which can alone convey an interest
and sympathy to others. From this censure, how-
ever, I must exempt " The True Untrue," were it
only for the excellent sketch it contains of the
feelings and opinions of the gentry of the old school
in the person of a county magistrate.
In the fine arts Hungary has made but little
progress. Even in the most wealthy houses paint-
ings are very rare. I believe the only painter born
in Hungary, whose name is at all known to history,
is Gottfried Mind, called the Cats' Raphael, from
his admirable knowledge and delineation of his
favourites, the cats. The only living painter of
any eminence is Marko, now in Rome, whose beau-
tiful landscapes and classical figures are well known
and highly esteemed. In sculpture, I have seen
one or two pieces of Ferenczi, which, though not
without merit, are far below the estimation in
which they are held here. The most extraordinary
work of art I have seen in Hungary, is an alto-
relievo in copper, which we were shown while yet
in progress. The artist, Szentpeteri, is a poor sil-
versmith, who after a few essays of little impor-
tance, has undertaken to copy Le Brun's picture4
of the battle of Arbela, from an engraving in alto-
relievo on copper. The work was about three parts
THE THEATRE. 469
finished, and showed, not only wonderful industry
and perseverance, but a degree of talent and taste
from which great things might have been produced
under proper cultivation. The figures are hammered
out from the inside when the metal is so hot as to
be easily malleable.* The artist is an exceedingly
simple unpretending person, whose whole soul seems
wrapped up in his work.
In music, Liszt and Mademoiselle linger place
Hungary in more than a respectable position ; but
they, as well as Marko and Szentpeteri, are obliged
to seek in other climes for encouragement and pa-
tronage.
The theatre for the performance of German
pieces here, is almost as large as the great theatres
of Paris or London ; but it is a gloomy looking
place and badly adapted for the transmission of
sound. The ordinary company is a pretty good one,
and most of the great actors who come to Vienna
pay a visit to Pest before their return, so that it is
by no means ill supplied. Since we have been
here, we have had Madame Schroeder Devrient and
an opera company, and still later, Anchiitz, the
tragic actor from Vienna. Even our own best
tragedians might take lessons from Anchiitz in
the representation of their own Shakspearean cha-
racters.
There is an Hungarian theatre in Buda which I
* This work was exhibited in London in 1838, but did not
excite so much attention as it merited.
470 MAGYAR LANGUAGE.
have not seen, and a new theatre is erecting in Pest,
which is to be devoted entirely to Hungarian
pieces. The establishment of this theatre is looked
forward to with the greatest interest, as an object
of national importance, from the influence it is cal-
culated to exert in the diffusion and cultivation
of the language.
It would not be right to quit this subject without
saying a few words relative to this same Magyar
language, to which such frequent allusion has been
made ; and although I do not think my half-dozen
lessons in Hungarian give me the right to speak
on the matter ex cathedra — albeit, many travellers
do so with still less — I may venture a remark on
two or three grammatical peculiarities, which ap-
pear to me the most interesting. I have before ob-
served that in proper names the surname precedes
the Christian name — as that of the genus the
species in natural history — and the same rule
prevails with some titles. In the use of pro-
nouns, it is singular that they are made to follow
instead of precede the noun, and are affixed to it ;—
Kalap, a hat, — Kalap-am, my hat. Both these pe-
culiarities are, I believe, common to the Turkish
language also. In like manner, the prepositions
are made Compositions ; — Kalap-am-ba, in my hat.
In consequence of this joining together of words^
the Hungarians can construct a whole sentence
in a single word, and the following is often given
as an illustration ; not that such a word would be
MAGYAR LANGUAGE. 471
used in conversation, but as a proof of how far it
may be carried ; — Ha meg Ko-pe-nye-ge-sit-te-len-nit~
teh-het-ne-lek — If I could deprive you of your clothes.
In the construction of verbs, there is a difference
from those of other European languages, which ren-
ders a true knowledge of Hungarian exceedingly
difficult to the foreigner. This is the existence of
a determinate and indeterminate form of every
tense and mood. It is easy enough to understand
the principle of it, but exceedingly difficult to
apply it correctly. Ldtok, I see, is in the inde-
terminate form ; Idtom, I see it, in the determi-
nate. In the same way Idtott & goz-hajot — did
you see a steam-boat? is indeterminate, — Idtta e
a goz-hajot — did. you see the steam-boat? — deter-
minate.
That the Magyars should think the Magyar
tongue the sweetest, the strongest, the fullest, the
best, — that they should imagine that poetry can
never flow so smoothly, or eloquence speak with such
energy as in the Magyar nyelv, is quite natural ;
for no one can feel all the beauties of a language
which has not been familiar to his childhood ; but
they must not be astonished if a stranger, who has
only got into his grammar, does not quite agree
\ with them. That the Magyar is forcible aud ener-
i getic, I believe ; for it partakes in that of the cha-
racter of the people. Its sharp and accentuated
syllables give it a character of distinctness and
precision, and its accurate division into long and
472 MAGYAR LANGUAGE.
short vowels may confer on it a certain facility
for versification ; but as for its soft and musical
qualities, I must confess I could never discover
them. The Hungarian ladies say it is the best
language in the world for love-making: — I can
only answer, tant pire pour nous autres Grangers.
And d propos of the language, before I entirely
quit the subject, let me record one of the most
single-minded and enthusiastic adventures I ever
heard of, and which is intimately connected with it.
Nothing puzzles Hungarian historians more than
the question as to where the Magyars came from.
One traces an analogy between the Magyar lan-
guage and the Finnish; another makes the Magyars
Turks ; others trace them to the mountains of Cir-
cassia, and some again throw them back to the
wall of China. The assistance which language
might afford in this investigation has not been neg-
lected, but hitherto nothing very satisfactory has
been made out. The common opinion, however, is
in favour of Thibet as the place of their origin, and
the Caucasus is supposed to have been a resting-
place in the course of their western emigration.
It was in 1819, that this subject took such strong
hold of the mind of a poor Szekler student of the
name of Kb'rb'si, that he determined, after finishing
his studies, to make a journey into these countries
to try if he could not solve this great national ques-
tion. Though noble, Kb'rosi had no fortune what-
soever, and he consequently knew that he should
MR. KOROSI. 473
have to endure all the additional hardships which
the greatest poverty could place in the way of a
difficult undertaking. To prepare himself to en-
counter them, for six months previous to setting
out, he subjected himself to the most severe exer-
cise, literally living on bread and water, and sleep-
ing on the hard ground. As he was starting on his
expedition, he happened to pass through the village
of a gentleman with whom I am acquainted, and
who met him and invited him to stay and dine with
him. " Impossible," said the single-minded student;
" I am going to Thibet, the way is long, and I must
not tarry on the road, or my life may be too short
to accomplish it."
In 1820, Kbrbsi had reached Teheran, having
passed through Circassia without having obtained
any solution to the question, and from thence he
pushed on to Thibet, where he was heard of in
1822. When in Constantinople, in 1836, a gentle-
man who had travelled much in the East, told me
that he had seen Korb'si only the year before in
Calcutta ; that he had then rooms and everything
necessary furnished by the East India Company,
and that he was actively occupied in compiling
lexicons of one or two Thibet languages, of the
existence even of which no one had been previously
aware. Of the great question, the original seat
of the Magyars, this gentleman said he believed
that Korosi had not arrived at any satisfactory
conclusion. The East India Company had been de-
474 TRADES' COMPANIES.
sirous to engage him in their service at a hand-
some salary, but he had declined it as of no use
to him.
Among other matters which gave life to the
winter in Pest, was the occurrence of a little revo-
lution among the cobblers. The trades in Hungary
are still, in all the towns, under the control of Com-
panies or Corporations, as they formerly were with
us. The consequence is, of course, as in all other
close bodies, a great oppression of the weaker mem-
bers, and it appeared, in the present case, that the
master shoemakers had been so hard upon their
workmen that the latter had turned out and com-
mitted some slight excesses before the biirger
guard — a sort of "train-band knights," — could re-
duce them to order. All who would not consent
to return to their work, were very unceremoni-
ously presented with passports and " recommended
to travel."
No one, I believe, who knows anything about the
matter, believes that these companies are now of
any use — whatever they may have been in former
times — save to enrich a few bad workmen at the
expense of the community at large ; but they have
managed to turn them to account in Hungary, in
a manner I never heard of before. In cases of
fire, every company is obliged to attend and give
assistance, and to each is assigned a particular
duty ; to the masons, for instance, the climbing the
roofs ; and even the surgeons are obliged to be in
POPULAR JOKES. 475
readiness to relieve those who may have received
injury.
I believe some little knowledge of national cha-
racter may be obtained from common interna-
tional jokes and stories, and I may therefore
give the reader one or two about the Hungarians,
current among the Viennese. Whether I have
read these or heard them, I really forget ; but as I
find them in my note-book, I must give them,
although they may be quotations from an Austrian
Joe Miller.
Once upon a time, the manager of an Hunga-
rian theatre produced what he considered a very
fine piece of scenery, in which was represented a
full moon, in the form of a round, fat, clean-shaved
face, which might have suited a Dutch cherub.
Instead of the anticipated applause, the luckless
manager found his scene received with damning
hisses ; and it appeared that the popular indignation
was more particularly directed against the "pale-
faced moon," " the German moon," as they called it.
Now as the Hungarians like their moon, as well as
everything else, to be quite national, the manager
determined to please them, and next night up rose
the poor moon with as glorious a pair of mustaches
as the fiercest Magyar amongst them could exhibit.
Hurrahs burst from every mouth at sight of this
reform, and all cried, " Long live our own true
Magyar moon, and confusion to all German moons
for ever ! " — The moon had evidently been brought
476 POPULAR JOKES.
up at court, and had learnt the value of popular
prejudices to those who know how to use them
against those who hold them.
Another tale against the poor Hungarians had
its origin in the hatred they bear to the knee-
breeches of the Germans. One of the Hungarian
regiments, quartered during summer in the burning
plains of Lombardy, was ordered by the colonel to
parade in white trousers, which had just been given
out, instead of the thick blue tights they had pre-
viously worn. The officers, however, found it no
easy matter to induce compliance, and one excuse
or another was always found for delay, till at
last the colonel issued a second order, peremptorily
fixing a day for the change, and threatening
severe punishment for disobedience. It could no
longer be put off, and the men accordingly paraded
in whites; but determined not to be made com-
fortable in anybody's way but their own, they all
wore their thick blues underneath.
Young Baron • entered our room one morn-
ing evidently much excited, and as he concluded a
detail of some new trick the Government had just
played the Diet, he exclaimed, " It is time such
treachery were ended ; we shall never have any
good as long as we remain attached to Austria, — I
say national independence, and if any man will
raise the banner, I will follow it. Happen what
may, we cannot be worse off than we are."
" Quietly, friend," interrupted an older gentleman,
AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY. 477
who happened to be present ; " you do not mean
what you say, and if you did, it would be sheer
nonsense. The Austrian Government is not ill-
intentioned, but it is stupid. It is false and
treacherous, I allow, but rather from cowardice
than malice; and such speeches as that you have
just made, do therefore a great deal of mischief.
Recollect that it is only a few months since the
Government committed a gross act of cruelty and
injustice in throwing into prison, without any trial, a
number of young men, because in a debating society
at Presburg, they had entertained this very subject
of national independence ; and, where, to make the
matter more ridiculous, they had quarrelled as to
whether Sz£chenyi or Wesselenyi should be the king
of their new Utopia. A Government so weak
as to be frightened out of its senses, and led into
acts of the grossest barbarity about so silly an affair
as this, should be treated only like a child, and
not terrified by bugbears which have no reality.
But, if you speak seriously of such a matter, there
are one or two points it would be well for you
to think over first. You should recollect that
Hungary is surrounded by Austria, Russia, and
Turkey, none of them countries from which the
advocates of freedom could expect much sym-
pathy or assistance. And then," continued the
old gentleman, as the Baron was about to inter-
rupt him, " the very nature of the country is such
as to render its occupation by an insurgent army
478 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.
almost impossible. Full half of Hungary, and that
the most fruitful half, is an open plain, on which
ten thousand regular troops would be able to dis-
sipate all the untrained masses you could bring
against them. The mountains you might perhaps
hold, but your enemies need only leave you there
till hunger produced discontent, and discontent trea-
chery, to enable them to secure a bloodless victory."
"As for Russia!" answered the Baron, "she has
quite enough to do to check liberalism at home,
without interfering with it in Hungary. She could
exercise no power here."
" I think you conclude too hastily," I observed,
" you know well enough you are divided into se-
veral races, and several religions. You know
that Russia is constantly at work to undermine
the fidelity of the Sclavish and Wallack portion of
your population. Of the ten millions of which you
consist, no less than four and a half are Sclaves."
" Yes, but allowing your calculation, though I
think you overrate it, you must acknowledge that
the Sclaves are divided into Sclavacks, Rusniacks,
Croatians, and Sclavonians, and that they hate one
another quite as cordially as they hate the Magyars,
and Russia more than all."
"Skilful intrigue might still do much mischief,
and Russia would be likely enough in secret to
promise you all kinds of aid, till she had succeeded
in disorganizing the country to such an extent
that it could never more stand betwixt her and
AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY. 479
the objects of her ambition. Fortunately the
northern Sclaves are chiefly Catholic, and therefore
free from Russian influence on the score of religion ;
but race and language are strong bonds of union,
and if to these be added the dazzle of conquest,
and the glory of belonging to a powerful people,
they are not to be despised. Nor are the Wai-
lacks, especially if those of Transylvania be taken
into the account, a less important element in cal-
culating the weakness of the position you would
assume. Their attachment to the Emperor of
Russia, as the head of the Russo-Greek church, is
beyond question. I know some of the bolder
spirits have calculated, that, if driven by Austria
to the madness of revolt, all these interests might
be conciliated, by at once declaring the whole body
of peasantry free from seigneurial jurisdiction, and
confirming to them the possession of their land
without labour or rent. Such, however, are dan-
gerous expedients, and would scarcely turn to the
profit of any."
" There are certainly difficulties in the way, and
serious ones, I allow, but men forget these when
driven to madness as we are. If Austria does not
change her policy she must be content to see
Hungary right herself before long."
"You exaggerate, dear Baron," again urged our
friend; "things are not quite so bad as you re-
present them; and as to what fate may have in
store for our fatherland in the distant future, we
480 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.
cannot now tell; but as matters stand at present,
the advocate of civil war in Hungary must be little
less than a madman. The day may come when, by
the combinations of European policy, the empire
of Austria shall be dismembered, or rather fall to
pieces of itself, and Hungary, strong and united, be
able to offer to its king a throne more glorious
than that he filled as Emperor of Austria ; but in
the mean time, let us content ourselves with those
blessings which our present position offers us, and
direct our whole efforts to improve our institutions,
and render them such as the spirit of the present
age requires."
As the common dinner hour at Pest is two or
three o'clock, the time for making calls is between
six and eight. On these occasions, it is the custom
to dress almost as for an evening party ; the ladies
in caps and low dresses, the gentlemen in silks and
shoes. On paying a visit of this kind at the house
of Madame F , I by chance interrupted a con-
versation on a little matter of scandal which had
just occurred at Milan, between a certain prince
and his lady. On being informed of the nature of it,
and on expressing my wonder that I had not heard
of it before, one of the ladies, a desperate politician
and a stanch Austrian, exclaimed, " No, no ! we
don't publish such matters in our newspapers, as you
do !" and with that she commenced a general attack
on England and the English, from which I was
evidently expected to defend them. The abuse of
ENGLISH TRAVELLERS. 481
the press was the more immediate object of her de-
nunciation ; and very justly did she declaim against
the immorality of certain disclosures in a celebrated
crim. con. case, which had then just astonished
the continental public. Our libels too were not
more tenderly handled. " Nay," she continued,
"not content with libelling one another, you must
come here and libel us. A book, I see, has just
been published in England, in which all the ladies
of Hungary are spoken of as ignorant and unedu-
cated !" Of course, I had not a word to say then
in my defence, but I think I have a fair right now
to revenge myself on Mr. Quin for getting me into
such a scrape.
Many, I dare say, remember a very agreeably
written book, called, "A Steam-boat voyage down
the Danube," — that is, from Pest to below Orsova,
and occupying about ten days, during which time
the author thinks he has collected information about
Hungary which entitles him to pronounce opinions
on all sorts of matters, and amongst others, on the
education of Hungarian ladies.
On the authority of his not understanding the
language in which some young ladies on board the
steamer conversed, he affirms not only that they
spoke no other language than Hungarian, but that
such was generally the case. Now it is a fact, how-
ever little it may be known to Mr. Quin, that the
education of Hungarian ladies, as far as languages
are concerned, is very much more advanced than
VOL. II. I I
482 ENGLISH TRAVELLERS.
that of English or French ladies — ay, or gentlemen
either — of the same rank. I have passed a consi-
Iderable time in the country, and have had the
opportunity of making the acquaintance of many
Hungarian ladies, and I do not know one who speaks
only Hungarian, though I do know several who do
not speak that language. It is accounted one of the
great misfortunes of Hungary, that, instead of Hun-
garian, German is the common language used in most
families ; and in the drawing-rooms of the capital,
German, French, and even English, are more often
heard than Hungarian. If it were not calling in
question our author's erudition, — to which he makes
^ some pretension, — I would wager that German,
and not Hungarian, was the language which so
terribly puzzled him. Let me assure Mr. Quin
that all Hungarian ladies speak German, most of
them French, many English and Italian, besides,
what to Mr. Quin might appear barbarous tongues,
such as the Magyar, Sclavackish, and Wallachian.
And I may remark, en passant, that it must have been
peculiarly difficult for the pretty Countess, who
he says spoke neither French nor Italian, to have
communicated with the French femme de chambre
who accompanied her. And so having vented some
of my spleen against Mr. Quin's negligence and
want of gallantry, I shall let him off, at least for the
present, without exposing any more of the many
mischievous blunders with which his amusing book
abounds.
ENGLISH TRAVELLERS. 483
While I am speaking of travellers and their
mistakes with respect to Hungary, it might be as
well to correct a few others, but the task is so
serious a one, that I dare only undertake it for one
or two very recent and glaring instances. Most
travellers proceed just as far as Vienna, wherethey
hear all sorts of absurd tales of Hungary ; or if they
go further, they run through the country so hastily,
that they can take up only the most crude notions
of its men and manners.
, One* of these writers, in many respects very
accurate and judicious in his remarks, fancies he saw
troops of Hungarian peasants driven by their cruel
lords from their homes to make room for hunting-
parks or sheep-walks ! The author seems to have
gotjnto Jiis head some confused idea made up from,
the ancient history of the New Forest and the
nioclern history of jjjsji_ejectments, and^ to have
applied it to the landed gentry of Hungary- — why
/ or wherefore it is difficult to imagine. The herds
| of peasants might have been Bohemians or Croats,
\ probably on a pilgrimage, but were certainly not
Ngungarians./ He does not probably know that
the want of peasantry, not the superabundance, is
the complaint in Hungary; that the Hungarian
peasant possesses his land on a title which places
it out of his landlord's power to dispossess him,
and that were any such attempt made, the county
and the Government would not allow it, because,
*
Austria and the Austrians.
484 ENGLISH TRAVELLERS.
. in losing the peasant they lose the taxes; nay,
so strict is the law in this respect, that if a peasant
quit his land voluntarily, his lord cannot occupy
I it himself, but must place another peasant in it as
\ soon as one offers. Besides, when the Hungarian
) peasant leavesTns native village to seek a better
settlement, it is always in his own country ; for he
/ has a fixed idea that there is not enough to eat and
^ — drink anywhere else than in Hungary. Instead of
forming hunting-parks, which would be of little
use, where every Hungarian gentleman and every
officer has the right to sport over at least one half
of his neighbour's estates, most of the land-owners
are clearing their ground, improving their agricul-
ture, and thinking more of increasing their revenues
than of extending their shooting-grounds.
Another traveller* who enters Hungary but for
a few hours, still finds something to say against it.
|He invites himself to dine with a country gentle-
man he has never seen in his life, does not find
the dinner large enough for the accession his own
party has made to the family, misunderstands the
x' customs of the country, and finishes by casting a J
jlur^m_thejip^^ nation /
But this gentleman has strong political
feelings — not those of the most liberal tendency —
and he cannot pardon a people who talk about
liberty and independence, although it is in opposi-
tion to a country which he himself calls "a large
•-•• ~~
* Schloss Hainfeld, by Captain B. Hall.
ENGLISH TRAVELLERS. 485
state prison," and a system of government which
he characterises as encouraging whatever has a
tendency to keep the human mind in a state of
" uninvestigating ignorance."
A more serious error, and one which I am sure
the author would not have made intentionally, may
be found in Mr. Gleig's recent work on Germany,
Bohemia, and Hungary. Mr. Gleig observes, " In
the rural districts every man you meet, provided he
be neither a noble nor a soldier, belongs to some-
body. He has no rights of his own ; he is a portion
of another man's chattels ; he is bought and sold
with the laud, as if he were a horse or an ox.'
Now I have already said sufficient to show the
reader that not one word of this statement is cor-
rect. But I appeal to him if it is not painful to
see a gentleman of Mr. Gleig's talent, take up, and
give currency to so grave an erroiywhicli at once
deprives a^ whole nation of any sympathy or respect
from the whole of civilized Europe. Then comes
the assertion that it is only within the last year that
regular county magistrates have been appointed. I
have no idea whence such a mistake could have Q
arisen. The_county magistracy, ^^Ms^tjresent^ Q
organized in Hungary, is one jrfjhe most ancient c
institutions of Europe. VAR M EGYE
The last ball of the Carnival is a very important
affair here, and for a full week before its occurrence
great was the diplomacy employed to arrange it. It
is always expected to be the best of the season, and
486 THE LAST BALL.
is quite sure to be kept up till late in the morning,
so that it is apt to be rather expensive. Still no
one dreamt for a moment of not having a ball ; the
only question was, who was to give it ? The Coun-
tess B declared that she should like to do so,
but the Count protested she had given so many,
that he could not afford any more. The Baroness
W , who has such very nice rooms, was not well
enough to bear the fatigue, and Mr. H , who
was always ready to oblige, could not this year, on
account of the recent death of a near relative.
Happen, however, it must, and the very evening
before it was to take place, it was announced with
great joy, in the midst of a ball, that the good-
natured Countess S had consented to take
the charge on herself, and she at once asked every-
body to come, and to tell those of their friends who
were not then present to come also.
It was then near midnight, and, as she told me
afterwards, she immediately returned home, sum-
moned her servants, informed them of what was to
happen, and set them all to work, so that by neither
going to bed herself, nor letting anybody else, before
the next evening she had turned the house wrong
side upwards, and fitted it for the reception of her
crowd of guests.
In the midst of the festivities of the evening, as
I was quietly enjoying the scene, I could not help
smiling at the conversation of some respectable
dowagers near me, who lamented that, after all, the
MASQUERADE. 487
last balls were nothing now to what they used to be
in thej£_time_ — when they continued till daylight,
and when all the ladies and gentlemen, dressed as
they were, walked in procession from the ball-room
and began their Lent the moment
they finished their Garni vajj^
I did not wait for the end of this ball, as I wished
to see the masquerade at the Redout. The Redouten
Saal is a large building on the quay, where the
public balls are commonly held. The room is
one of the jargest j_ever saw, and requires I know
not how many thousand lights for its illumination.
Though rather heavy, it is a beautiful piece of
architecture, and does its designer great credit.
Instead of the hundred or two well-dressed persons
I had just left, I found several thousands collected
here, and apparently of every rank, from the pretty
milliner to the stately Countess. Although the
higher classes can scarcely be said to share with
the middle in their amusements, for they always
hold themselves a little on the reserve, they are
yet wise enough to attend their public festivities,
and not the proudest lady would venture on these
occasions to refuse the hand of the humblest
apprentice boy in the dance if invited by him. This
condescension on the part of the upper classes is
most politic, as it tends strongly to remove from
the lower the feelings of envy and hatred, which
superior advantages are so apt to create.
As a stranger, I had expected to escape without
488 MASQUERADE.
notice, and had not consequently masked : I was
mistaken, however, for during the two or three
hours I remained, I had scarcely a moment's rest.
One mask or another was constantly seizing me by
the arm, and squeaking into my ear a quantity of
secrets (with which to the present time I cannot
conceive how they became acquainted), and then
leaving me just as my astonishment was excited to
the highest pitch. AUSTRIAN BfAfr OF pfe
i One of the best balls during the Carnival, was that
given by the lawyers and law-studenlSa^jo which all
I the nobles and citizens were invited. It is common
I in Vienna to speak of the law-students, or rather
(as those who have finished their studies
are called)kas_a most rude and unruly set. They
are the same persons whom we have seen at Pres-
burg filling the floor of the Chamber of Deputies,
and certainly exercising their lungs most freely
in applauding or hissing whomsoever they pleased.
But it is jinfajr^ to ^onsider^them rude^on that
jjjCcount ; if they have a right to be there, they do
not exercise their privilege one bit more rudely
than the gentlemen of the House of Commons with
[us ; and if they have not a right, why are they not
kept silent ? That their presence is not only a great
inconvenience but a direct interference with the
liberty of debate, I am quite ready to allow, and
I cannot understand why the Chamber does not
pass a formal law to protect itself from such
interference. While it is permitted, however, no
MASQUERADE. 489
one ought to complain that it is exercised. A
great number of students were present, but instead
of the rude conduct JJaad heard attributed to them,
I ^bserved nothing but the greatest order and pro-
priety. Nor, as I am speaking of balls, should I
forget the very pleasant ones given by the Casino
every year. In fact, there never was a place better
provided with balls than this same Pest, and if a
man has any fancy that way, he may dance every
night from the beginning of the Carnival to the
end.
Der stoss ! — Der stoss ! — Such was the cry,
following the report of a cannon, which we heard
one morning through the hotel and in the streets.
Hastening out to see what was the matter, we found
the ice on the Danube had begun to move, and
everybody had flocked down to the river to specu-
late as to whether it would go off quietly, or whether
there was any prospect of injury from it to the
houses on the banks. This breaking up of the ice is
a serious matter here. For months it has formed a
road across the river, which becomes now no longer
secure, and its great thickness and the quantity
formed, render its removal a very long process,
When pressed by a flood of water from above, the
masses of ice often rise one upon the other, some-
times to the height of a house, and by the obstruc-
tion which they cause produce a flood. It is from
this circumstance one of the greatest dangers is
apprehended to the chain-bridge. What arches, it
490 THE THAW.
is asked, can withstand the force of such masses of
ice with the weight of the whole Danube pressing
upon them? Ice-breakers, however, set at some
distance before the bridge, on which the vast masses
might break themselves, it is considered would
prove effectual preventives against such a danger.
The use of cannon to break the ice too, has been
suggested, but I should think the newly discovered
plan of blasting under water by the aid of galvanism
would be more likely to effect the object.
A few days later I had a proof how great an
inconvenience this stoss is. General L , the
commander of the garrison of Buda, had issued invi-
tations to all the beau monde of Buda, and Pest also,
for a ball. Of course this could not be put off, but
the difficulty was, how were the Pest people to
get there. The ice was still on the move, that is,
it made a progress of some yards every day ; it was
already clear from the sides to the distance of
twenty yards on each bank, and great spaces of
many yards in extent were open. Most of the
ladies gave up the ball rather than face the danger,
but Madame W , declared, if any one would
join her, she would go, were it only for the credit
of the ladies of Pest. A party was soon made up,
and of course the gentlemen had no excuse. How
the ladies managed I cannot say, but for myself I
was taken out of the carriage and carried through
a heap of wet mud to a small boat which they
pushed across to the ice. There a hand-sledge was
THE THAW. 491
in waiting, into which I got, and amidst a good
number of crackings and roarings of the ice, I
passed over in safety to where another boat con-
veyed me to a second carriage on the Buda side.
If I remember rightly, the ice took three weeks
before it was all gone after the first stoss. During
the whole, of that time, day and night, a watch
was set who gave the alarm whenever it was in
motion, and a gun was fired to warn the people
to get off.
492 DEPARTURE FROM PEST.
CHAPTER XV.
FROM PEST TO FIUME.
Departure from Pest. — Notary of Teteny. — Volcanic District. —
Bakonyer Forest. — Subri. — Hungarian Robbers. — Conscription
— Wine of Somlyo. — Keszthely. — Signs of Civilization. —
Costume of Nagy K£nisa. — The Drave. — Death of Zriny. —
Croatia and Sclavonia. — State of the Peasantry. — Agram. —
Croatian Language. — Public Feeling in Croatia. — Smuggling.
— Karlstadt. — Save and Kulpa. — The Ludovica Road — its
Importance. — Fiume. — English Paper Mill. — Commerce. —
Productions of Hungary.— Demand for English Goods in Hun-
gary.— Causes which impede Commerce, and the means of their
removal.
SOON after the frost bad disappeared, and before
the ice had fairly cleared away from the Danube,
we heard that a new steam-boat was about to leave
Trieste for Constantinople, touching at Corfu. Zante,
and Athens in her way. As we had already seen
so much of the Danube, and intended to return
by it again through Wallachia to complete our
tour in Transylvania, we determined to avail our-
selves of this opportunity to visit Turkey. An-
other inducement too, was the route we might take
through Croatia and by Fiume to Trieste, which
would show us another very important part of Hun-
gary with which we were as yet unacquainted.
BAD PROSPECT. 493
Instead of starting early in the morning of the
28th of February, as we had intended, we were
delayed for some time by the ice. It had now
become too rotten to be used as a bridge, and a
ferry had been established wherever an open space
was left ; but the ice was so constantly moving,
that the ferry had frequently to be changed, and
one of these changes detained us several hours.
At last the ferry was declared open, the carriage
embarked, and we had nothing to do but shake
hands with our friends, and express a hearty wish
that we might soon meet them again, — and so we
started on our way.
Our first drive did not afford us a very favour-
able prospect for the rest of the journey. It was a
cold wet night, and the roads were so deep in mud,
that it was as much as six good horses could do to
drag us through it. Before we had got half over
one station too, the iron-work supporting the dickey
gave way, and we were obliged to fasten it up
with ropes. Under these circumstances, we deter-
mined to stop at the first village, Tet£ny, for the
night, and as there was not a bedroom to be had
in the inn, we gladly availed ourselves of the offer
of the notary to sleep in his house.
~ r — f ^^
The notary was a very civil and obliging person,
and from a couple of violins and a pianoforte which
we found in the room, and from some music of Ros-
sini's, which was lying about, I should judge a man
of taste also. Hejwas master o£ the, parish-sch ool ,
494 VOLCANIC DISTRICT.
and told us that all the children attended it very
regularly. The peasants are Germans. He declined
receiving_ajiythmg next morning for the hospitality
he had offered us, but the " gude wife " was " mair
canny," and allowed herself to be prevailed on.
/ As we pursued this same route before, at least as
far as Veszprim, when we visited Fiired, I need say
nothing more in regard to it here, than that the car-
riage broke down three or four times on the way, and
caused as many disagreeable pauses before we could
get it mended. Whether it was the severe frost
which had affected the iron- work, or whether it
was that the Vienna iron was itself bad, I cannot
tell, but it is certain that the unusual straining
caused by the state of the roads was too much for
it, and great was our annoyance in consequence.
Instead of turning off to Fiired, we now con-
tinued along the high road which runs parallel with
the Balaton, but at some distance from it, to Ta-
polcza. For the greater part of the last stage we
had been struck with a new appearance in the
mountains, which seemed to rise alone, and in iso-
lated masses from the plain. This, of course, led
us to suppose them of volcanic origin, though they
were too far off to enable us to make sure of the fact.
Before long, however, we found the road itself had
changed colour, and on looking more minutely, it
turned out to be composed of volcanic tufa, instead
of the new limestone we had seen before, and a
little further on, we came to basalt itself, and thus
BAKONYER FOREST. 495
the difficulty as to the appearance in these moun-
tains was at once solved. As we proceeded, we
noticed that some of the hills presented the ap-
pearance of truncated cones, while others were
quite conical, and on turning to our books after-
wards, we found that we had fallen in with a well-
known volcanic district, in which some of the
mountains are said to have distinct craters.
We had now entered the Bakonyer forest, a hilly
tract of country, extending nearly from the Danube
to Croatia, and covered with thick woods, afford-
ing shelter to the bands of robbers by whom it
is generally infested. I am not very credulous on
the subject of robbers, but I do believe that this
neighbourhood is rarely quite free from them, and
I must confess I did not very much like the look
of some half-score fellows who followed the carriage
as we entered^ Tapolcza, inquiring very eagerly if
we would not go on further that evening. On
talking with the waiter at the inn, as to how far
our suspicions might be well founded, he said he
thought them groundless, though, on being pressed
further, he allowed that only a day or two before,
fourteen ofjjubrT-Sjnen had been seen in the village
dressed as women, and he said that patrols were out
through the whole country, for the purpose of arrest-
ing them. Though we had been staying so long in
Hungary, we had scarcely ever heard the name of
^nhrLheforeqJjit^^wh ng^ ter" tnr j pg we now appeared
to have intruded. Since that time, however, Subri
496 SUBRI.
has obtained an European reputation, and his
death has rendered him a worthy subject of popu-
lar song. After having been watched for a long
time by a body of troops quartered all through the
country, he was at last betrayed while drinking
with his men at a public-house. Before they were
aware of it, a detachment of cavalry had surrounded
them ; but they nevertheless made the attempt to
escape to the woods by fighting their way despe-
rately through the soldiers. Several, both of the
robbers and soldiers fell, and the officer of the
detachment had a very near escape. On approach-
ing Subri, with the intent to seize and take him
alive, the robber drew a pistol from his belt, and
placed it close to the officer's head. Subri, however,
had vowed that he would never be taken alive, and
seeing that escape had become impossible, he de-
liberately turned the pistol against himself and
blew out his own brains.
Many are the tales which have been told of this
Subri, but they are too doubtful to be worth re-
peating. Like most others of the great robbers of
Hungary — the Angyal Bandi, Zb'ld Marczi, and
Becskereki — Subri had many of those notions of
wild justice, which render our own Robin HOJ£&
so dear to the recollections of the people. To rob
from the rich and give to the poor ; to punish the
strong, and protect the weak ; to ill-treat proud
men, and behave with gallantry to pretty women ; —
such are the characteristics of the great robbers of
HUNGARIAN ROBBERS. 497
Hungary, and such the traits that have filled the |
songs of the peasantry with their names and deeds. I
There is another cause, too, which has tended to '
increase the popular sympathy with robbers in
Hungary. They are, for the most part, young men
who have been taken for soldiers, and who, having
run away, have no other means of existence left.
Even the sympathies of the nobles themselves are
often engaged in their favour, and there are few, who,
either from weakness or mistaken kindness, refuse
to send provisions or money to an appointed place,
when the Hungarian Captain Rock demands them.
The mode of raising the conscripts is so brutal,
that it is impossible not to pity those who are
exposed to it. When the county has issued its
orders to the under-officers to raise the required
number of men, they proceed to the villages, and
commence a levy by main force. Their common
plan is said to be to take, at first, only the sons of
the richest peasants, because they are certain of
obtaining a handsome sum for their release. As
soon as this is accomplished, they set about catch-
ing all the loose fellows in the parish, who, know-
ing what they have to expect, and pretty certain
that nobody will release them, have already taken
to the woods and mountains, and cannot be got
at without a regular hunt. When once caught, .
these poor fellows are ghaineoMn_long lines, and vj If
thus literally driven more cruelly than the same ^
men would treat their own beasts, to the head- p
VOL. II. K K
498 WINE OF SOMLYO.
quarters of the army. It is not to be won-
dered at, that a service so recruited should be
detested, or that the men should try to escape ;
nor is it matter of surprise that a human heart,
whether noble or simple, should sympathise with
the poor fellows, whom such brutality as this has
driven to a life of crime. This system of recruiting
is a deep disgrace to Hungary, and it is the duty
of every friend of his country to use his utmost
endeavours to reform it.
But to return to Tapolcza. The waiter's con-
versation, alarming as was the subject, did not pre-
vent us duly appreciating the excellence of the
wine he had set before us; — possibly it made us/
apply to it the more steadily. It was SchonriatieTV
and one of the very best white wines I ever drank.
It is grown, about a short day's journey from this
place, on the hill of Somlyo, near Vasarhely, and a
little to the west of it. If I am not mistaken, this
hill must belong to the volcanic range we saw in
this neighbourhood ; for I doubt if any other soil
could give its wine that high flavour which it boasts.
The Schomlauer, is a white wine, full-bodied and
strong. It would, 1 think, suit the English market
well, and it would probably bear the carriage with-
out injury.
Our route led us over a boggy plain, interspersed
with volcanic mountains, rising abruptly from it,
till we came to the shores of the Balaton, and so
continued as far as Keszthely. The scenery at the
KESZTHELY. 499
lower end of the Balaton is mountainous, and must
present many points of great beauty, which in a
more favourable season we should have been de-
lighted to ransack.
is a thriving little town, and of con-
siderable importance, from the great school of agri-
culture founded here by Count George Festetits,
and known as the Georgikon. Though no longer
in so flourishing a state as formerly, ^he Georgikon
iajL_gtill several professors and practical teachers
maintained at the expense of Count Festetits.
Thejre^are few countries in which more philan-
thropic endeavours to better the condition of the
people have been made than injjun^aryj but, un-
fortunately, these endeavours have wanted a charac-
ter of permanency, and they have, in consequence,
almost always declined on the death of their first
founder.
From Keszthely, we started about mid-day with
six horses, hoping to get on two or three stages
before night. But we were mistaken; we were
again in the Bakonyer forest, and the road, if road
it can be called, had become so bad, that at last
the horses stuck quite fast, and we were obliged
to wait patiently till Miklos returned, who had gone
off, on one of the leaders, for fresh horses. We
did not complete the fourteen miles to Kis Ko-
marom, in less than seven hours and a half. We
passed, in the course of the day, several waggons
guarded by soldiers, which our drivers told us
K K 2
500 BAKONYER FOREST.
were conveying money to Pest. Patrols, too, we
observed several times in different parts of the
forest.
The next day's journey was still worse; with
eight horses and four drivers we had hard work
to get to Nagy Kanisa. The whole country in this
neighbourhood is exceedingly wild and unculti-
vated. It is principally composed jof forest and
boggy grass-land, which is naturally rich, and only
requires a little cultivation to produce_abundance.
For wood scenery, — such as one loves to fancy
when hearing of Robin Hood, — I have never seen
anything finer. In many parts of this forest, I do
not suppose an axe was ever used ; and even close
by the road side, thousands of fine trees are rotting
from age. They are most]y_joaks, mixed with a
few birches. The mistletoe was in wonderful luxu-
riance; the dying tops of the oaks seemed quite
borne down by it. Where the surface is clear of
trees for a few yards, a fine turf springs up na-
turally, though the pigs, with which these forests
are filled in winter for the sake of the acorns, root
it up most unmercifully. It is wonderful to what
a depth these fellows will go in search of roots,
which they can smell from the surface. Their
power of scent must be very much finer than that
of the dog. We passed several villages belonging
to the bishop of Veszprim. The state of the pea-
santry— in great part Sclaves — is deplorable, in
spite of the richness of the land. I do not think
SIGNS OF CIVILIZATION. 501
we have seen anywhere worse cultivation, and
greater misery, than in this district.
During this journey, it so rarely happened that
we could calculate on arriving at a village at
any fixed time, that we always took care to start
with a good loaf of bread and a bottle of wine,
besides some raw bacon and salami, which, al-
though not the most elegant viands, were exceed-
ingly palatable to hungry travellers. When, after
dining three successive days on this diet, we ar-
rived at Nagy Kanisa about mid-day, and, instead
of a miserable village, found it a bustlinglittle
Jown,^nd_when^we_ heard that a dinner was to
be got, it was no wonder that we regarded it as
a god-send. S , after luxuriating on the five
good courses — soup, boiled beef, salt pork, and
saur Kraut, some pastry, and a loin of veal and
salad — exclaimed, " Well ! if any one ventures
to tell me, after this, that Hungary is not a very
civilized country, I shall beg to differ from him. I
should be glad to know where else such a dinner
as this, and a good bottle of wine to it, could be
J^i^orjwenty-p^nce,-— -I am sure^notjn^nglandj
I do not think I have anywhere entered my pro-
test against the veal, which is always the first
dish the landlord — especially if he be a German
—offers you in Hungary. It is a most villanous
affair, red, tough, and tasteless, and not to be com-
pared to an honest Magyar gulyds Ms, o
hendel.
502 WOMEN'S HEAD-DRESS.
The women of Nagy Kanisa are remarkable
for the peculiar character of their head-dress.
It is formed of white linen, disposed in flat folds,
so much resembling that worn in the neighbourhood
of Rome, that one can scarcely help fancying that
the one people must have derived it from the other.
I leave it to the speculative antiquary to determine
whether a Roman colony taught the fashion to the
Nagy Kanisians, or whether some of their barbarous
ancestors carried it with them into the villages of
the Campagna.
As we were about to leave this place, an English
gentleman, who had accidentally heard of our arri-
val, came and introduced himself to us. He had
been living with his wife, an Italian lady, in this
neighbourhood, for two or three years, and he gave
a tolerably favourable account of it. His neigh-
bours, he says, are polite and friendly, living is very
cheap, and the shooting particularly good.
THE ISLAND. 503
It took us seven days of tedious travelling, before
we arrived at the river Drave, which forms the boun-
dary of the ancient kingdom of Croatia. Between
the Muhr and Drave we passed through some exceed-
ingly flourishing villages, which offered a very strik-
ing contrast to many we had previously seen. This
district, called the " Island," from its position be-
tween the two rivers, although by no means one of
the most rich, is yet one of the most fruitful and
prosperous in Hungary. The wine, the tobacco, the
corn, the flax, every product grown here is better
than what is produced in the districts on either
side of it. All this prosperity seems to depend en-
tirely on the greater industry of the people. How
this has been produced it is difficult to say, but I
suspect it is owing to the good management of the
Count or Counts — for I could not make out whe-
ther it was one or many — Festetits, to whom the
greater part of it belongs. In one of these villages
we observed a farm-yard and farm buildings which
would not have been a discredit to Norfolk.
It is in this neighbourhood that the Zriny family
— those Zrinys who figure in so many pages of Hun-
garian history — took their origin, and possessed large
estates. The glorious death of Zriny Miklos has
earned for him the name of the Hungarian Leoni-
das. Zriny was intrusted with the command of the
castle of Sziget, near Fiinfkirchen, and having cut
off some of the Turkish troops, Solyman the Mag-
nificent determined to inarch against him with all
504 DEATH OF ZRINY.
his forces. Although Zriny had but a small garri-
son, and was left quite unsupported from without,
he sustained the siege with the most extraordinary
valour. The enemy was driven back in no less than
twenty attempts to storm the castle, sixty thousand
of the Turkish forces had perished, and Solyman
himself had sickened and died — still Zriny held
out ; but now only three hundred of his men were
living, and hunger was fast destroying even them.
Determined not to yield, Zriny and his brave band
rushed out on the Turks, and were all killed fight-
ing to the last. This heroic resistance so far weak-
ened the Turkish army, that they were obliged to
retire without attempting any further invasion.
Near Csakatornya, at Nedelicz, is a custom-house
for goods passing from Austria into Hungary. A
great part of the transport trade — especially that
carried on in the lighter waggons, between Trieste
and Hungary — is said to pass through this place.
The chief articles are colonial produce, particularly
sugar and coffee. Laden waggons generally occupy
seven days from Trieste to Nedelicz, and from
thence to Pest or Vienna about eight more.
The Drave is a fine wide river, but apparently
not very deep; with a little artificial aid, however,
I should think it might be rendered navigable con-
siderably higher up than the point at which we
crossed. Directly on the other side, lies the town
of Varasdin ; but as we did not remain longer than
was required to change horses, I must content
CROATIA AND SCLAVONIA. 505
myself with saying that it is a pretty town, of eight
thousand inhabitants, with clean well-paved streets,
and a great number of handsome buildings.
While we are hastening on to Agram, the capital
of Croatia, I may as well say a word or two about
the country itself.
Croatia and Sclavonia — for they are always
reckoned together — form the south-western por-
tion of Hungary, to which country they have been
united ever since the eleventh century. Their
population, which may be estimated at something
less than a million, without the borderers, is entirely
of Sclavish origin, and of the Roman Catholic and
Greek religions. Croatia and Sclavonia have the
same laws and constitution as the rest of Hungary,
except in one or two particulars, in which they
enjoy special privileges. The counties send de-
puties to the Diet just as other parts of Hungary
and the county meetings are held in the same
way ; but in addition to this, they sometimes hold
what they call Diets of the Kingdoms of Croatia
and Sclavonia — Comitia Regnorum Croatia et
Sclavonics. What the exact use of these Diets is,
or how far their functions extend, I was not able to
make out, — indeed, I believe it is a disputed point,
the Croatians wishing to consider themselves as
confederates of Hungary, the Hungarians reckon-
ing them as part and parcel of themselves. They
sometimes, however, exercise the right of refusing
to obey, or to adopt the acts of the General
506 CROATIA AND SCLAVONIA.
Diet, when they interfere with their own peculiar
privileges.
A case has lately arisen with respect to one of
these privileges, which has given it a very unenvi-
able notoriety. It is the privilege of excluding all
Protestants from the possession of property, and
I believe, of refusing them even the right of
living within the boundaries of the two countries.
This question has been mooted before the General
Diet, and a more tolerant law passed; but as yet
no change has been effected, for the Croatians have
refused to sanction or adopt it. The only other
distinction of any importance is the existence of
the Banat Table, a court of justice, answering to
the district courts of Hungary, to which causes are
referred from the county courts.
The soil of Croatia, though less rich than that of
many parts of Hungary, is by no means a poor one,
but it is badly cultivated, and is in consequence
unproductive. The peasants whom we met on the
road were generally small in size, and poor in ap-
pearance. Their dress is somewhat similar to that
of the other peasants of Hungary, but it is more
coarse in material and rude in fashion. The men
wear brown cloth jackets, trimmed with red, a
round sheepskin cap on their heads, and trowsers
made of thick white cloth. The women have their
heads wrapped in a piece of white linen, arranged
without taste and hanging down over the shoulders.
Their only ornament is a bow of red ribbon fastened
STATE OF THE PEASANTRY. 507
on the breast. In winter, over the linen gown,
they wear a shapeless white great coat.
At a small village where we stopped to dine, we
fell into conversation with the landlord, — a bluff,
jolly-looking fellow, — who turned out to be a
Croatian Radical, and by no means too content
with the manner in which things are managed. He
said that the peasants are much more poor and
miserable than in Hungary, and that this is more
especially the case in the mountainous districts.
Nor did he attribute it so much to the poverty of
the soil, or the smaller size of the peasants' fiefs,
as to the oppression of their seigneurs. It is a
very common thing, according to his account, for a
landlord to seize his peasants' land on some frivo-
lous pretext, and keep it from them altogether, or
oblige them to pay a heavy sum to be allowed to
retain it. Sometimes a vineyard which has been
entirely formed by the labour of the peasant, and
which is often worth two or three hundred pounds,
is taken away, and a barren plot of ground, of the
same size, offered as an equivalent. The courts
of law, he said, afforded them no protection what-
soever. What rendered this man's testimony of
greater value was the fact, that he himself was
noble. Notwithstanding all this poverty and
wretchedness it should be remarked, that we saw
here more large churches, and more images of
saints, than in all the rest of Hungary together. I
do not assert that this was cause and effect, but if
508 AGRAM.
not, it was a curious coincidence, and it is one
which I have observed more than once in the
course of my travels.
The road leading into Agram is so bad that we
nearly stuck fast in the suburbs ; and this was the
more remarkable, because, till within a few miles of
the town, the roads had been far better than in most
other parts of Hungary. Agram itself is a town of
ten thousand inhabitants, and wears an aspect of
bustle and activity, which speaks well for its pro-
sperity. In strolling about, the Catholic Bishop's
palace was the first object which attracted our at-
tention. It was formerly a fortified castle, of such
an extent as to include the cathedral within its walls.
The fosse, however, is now converted into gardens,
with lakes, and winding walks, and temples which,
if a little fantastic, are still pretty, and are very
liberally thrown open to the public. The Bishop
is said to have about twenty-five thousand pounds
per annum, the greater part of which he derives
from his estates in the Banat. Although but in-
differently regarded as an absentee landlord, he
is very popular as a resident bishop, and is said
to do a great deal for the good of the town. He
has a regiment of grenadiers of his own, which
is composed entirely of his tenants from the^ Banat,
each of whom is obliged to serve two years. It is
no wonder that such soldiers have not a very mar-
tial bearing, and I certainly never saw anything
more ludicrous than the Bishop's clodhopper sen-
AGRAM. 509
tinels in their scarlet pantaloons, brown coats, and
high grenadier caps. The cathedral is a fine old
Gothic structure, but the interior is spoiled by
a profusion of rich marble altars, in the Italian
style. The pulpit is quite covered with alto-
rilievos in white marble.
From the palace we climbed the hill, on which
stand the middle and upper towns — for Agram con-
sists of three towns, in the lower of which our hotel
is situated. The Stadt, or higher town, was formerly
the fortress, and contains the palace of the Ban of
Croatia, and many fine houses of the nobles. We
found some good shops, chiefly kept by Raitzen
(Servians) and Jews, who are among the richest of
the inhabitants, and have the trade almost entirely
in their own hands. Of Germans there are but
few here. The drapers' shops were particularly
well supplied with German, Italian, and a few Eng-
lish goods.
One of the booksellers' shops which we entered
was large, and bespoke a thriving trade. It con-
tained almost all the standard German works, and
German translations of Bulwer, Marryat, and some
others of our popular novelists- There were a few
works in French, and one or two English works
with engravings. The bookseller, who was an
intelligent man, told us that all the higher classes
speak French and German, but very few English.
One small shelf contained all the Hungarian books,
among which were, the works of Count Cz6chenyi.
510 CROATIAN LANGUAGE.
Of books in the Croatian language, there are only
three or four existing. The Croatian language is a
dialect of the Sclavish, more resembling, however,
that of Poland than those of Bohemia, Russia, or
even the Sclavack dialect of the north of Hungary.
Till within the last few years, it has been totally
uncultivated, and its use confined exclusively to
the peasantry. Since, however, the Hungarian
Diet has proposed to enforce the use of the
Magyar language instead of the Latin, in public
transactions throughout all Hungary, a spirit of
opposition has been excited among the Sclavish
population, which threatens very serious conse-
quences. The first effect of the measure proposed
by the Diet was, the rousing up in Croatia of a
strong sentiment of nationality, which found vent
in the establishment of a periodical, something like
the "Penny Magazine5' in form, in the Sclavish
language. This is the " Danica Ilirska," edited by
Dr. Gay. It is published once a week, is very
respectably got up, and contains national songs,
original articles, and translations.
They are now endeavouring to improve the lan-
guage by introducing new words in use among the
Illyrians, whose language was originally the same,
but which is now more polished. The Illyrian
language is soft and agreeable to the ear, and no
doubt, to them, contains a thousand beauties which
no other language can possess. There seems too
to be some idea among the tetes exaltees here of
STATE OF PUBLIC FEELING. 511
an Illyrian nationality. It is no uncommon thing
to hear them reckoning up the Croats, Sclavonians,
Bosnians, Dalmatians, Servians, Montenegrins, and
Bulgarians, and then comparing this mass of Sclaves
with the three or four millions of Magyars, and
proudly asking why they should submit to deny
their language and their origin because the Magyars
command it.
I am very far from wishing this party success,
though I cannot help in some degree sympathising
with a people who resist, when they think a stronger
power is willing to abuse its strength by depriving
the weaker of those objects — language and religion
— which they hold as most dear. No one can doubt
how highly conducive it would be to the good of
Hungary that Croatia should be made completely
Hungarian ; or that it is disgraceful to the age
in which we live, that Protestants should be ex-
cluded from a whole country on account of their
faith ; yet indubitable as are these facts, it may
nevertheless be very impolitic to seek to remedy
them by violent means.
The act has passed, however, which declares that
in ten years' time no Croat shall be eligible to a
public office who cannot read and write the Magyar
language, and the consequence has been, the crea-
tion of a feeling of hatred against the Magyars,
which bodes but very ill for the speedy Magyarising
of the Croatian people. I have no doubt that some
portion of this opposition is connected with Rus-
512 STATE OF PUBLIC FEELING.
sian intrigue; for it is particularly strong among
the members of the Greek church, and it is so
much the interest of Russia to weaken Austria, by
disorganising her ill-united parts, that we may be
sure such an opportunity for the attainment of her
objects would not be lost. That many of those
who are influential in spreading the discontent, are
unknowingly instruments in the hand of Russia, I
feel certain ; — they profess indeed a most bitter
hatred of Russia, and I have no doubt feel it too ;
but they are as certainly working out her objects
as if they were her paid agents.
Among the communicants of the Greek reli-
gion, Russia has still more power in Croatia than in
Transylvania, because of the similarity of the lan-
guages ; and this influence is increased by the cir-
cumstance of the prayer-books of the Croats having
been formerly all printed in Russia. They conse-
quently contained many Russianisms, which remain
to the present time, though it is no longer allowed
to print them out of Austria. It is a curious cir-
cumstance, too, that the Catholic and Greek reli-
gionists, generally such bitter enemies, are said to
agree exceedingly well in Croatia.
We had observed, in walking through the town,
a great number of gentlemen in full costume, and
on inquiring the reason, found they had been pre-
sent at a county meeting, which had excited great
interest, from the circumstance of a royal commis-
sioner having been sent down expressly to attend
COUNTY MEETING. 513
it. It appeared that Government, having found it
impossible to check smuggling, by means of its
officers, on the frontiers of Croatia, had determined
to station them at different places within the coun-
try, with power to seize suspected goods wherever
they might find them. This, however, would have
been a gross violation of the Municipal Constitution,
which places the whole executive power in the
elected officers of the county; and the Croatians
declared, accordingly, that they would not submit
to it. In the face of such direct opposition, Govern-
ment had not ventured to put its plan into execu-
tion, and had sent down a commissioner to explain
its intentions, and, if possible, to persuade the
Croatians to consent. One of them, however, with
whom we fell into conversation, observed, " We
know better than to let Government officers in
amongst us, because, when once there, it is no such
easy matter to get rid of them again ; and besides,
the very laws which the Government wishes to
support by illegal means, are themselves contrary
to our rights; — let them restore to us our free
trade, — till they do that, I for one will aid the
smuggler by every means I possess."
From Agram to Karlstadt, our next resting-place,
we passed through a rather uninteresting country,
occasionally showing symptoms of activity and cul-
tivation, but in general much neglected. The Save,
which we crossed by a wooden bridge just on the
outside of Agram, is a fine river, and we were told
VOL. II. L L
514 KARLSTADT.
contains water enough at all seasons to float barges
of two hundred tons, bearing merchandise. A
great quantity of corn and brandy comes up the
Save every year from the Banat, for Croatia, Trieste,
and Italy ; but of late years it is said to have been
diminished by the competition with the corn from
Odessa. The manner in which many of the forests
are destroyed by bad management in this country,
is really melancholy, and the destruction has gone to
such an extent that firewood has become exceed-
ingly dear. We were told at Agram that a klafter
— a small cart load — costs as much as eighteen or
twenty shillings, and this in a country more than
half of which is in wood.
Karlstadt is on the Croatian military frontier,
and is rather a pretty town, with many good houses,
inhabited chiefly by the border officers. It has a
kind of fortress, but it is by no means capable of
holding out against artillery for a moment. The
river Kulpa, which flows through the town, and the
Ludovica road — the Hungarian Simplon — are the
chief sources of its wealth and importance.
From the communication which the road and the
Kulpa were expected to lay open, by means of the
Save and Danube, between the Adriatic and the
Black Sea, great commercial results were antici-
pated ; but hitherto it has disappointed the expec-
tations which were formed. A gentleman whom we
met here, told us that the Save is navigable at all
times of the year, and for almost any craft, and that
THE SAVE AND KULPA.
515
the Kulpa, even in its present state, is open for
large boats in spring and autumn, and for smaller
ones all summer, and that, with very little expense,
it might be rendered much more useful than it even
now is. As yet steam-boats have not been esta-
blished, even on the Save, but great hopes are
entertained that they will be ere long.*
As we were sitting down to our supper the land-
* The Athenceum contains a letter, dated Vienna, llth October
1838, containing a very interesting notice of the first attempt
to navigate the Save and Kulpa with steam. I extract a portion
of it :—
" The steam-boat (of forty-horse power) was named the Arch-
duchess Sophia, and started from Semlin as follows : —
Date of Departure.
Place and Hour of Arrival.
Remarks.
6th Sept.
Semlin, 2 P.M.
Kupinova,
7th Sept. 4 A.M.
Gunza, 8th Sept.
3 A.M.
Brood, 9th Sept.
Puska, 10th Sept.
7 A.M.
Kupinova ...... 7 P.M.
Witojercze ... 8 A.M.
Mitrovitz 12
BonoraAdicza 2J
Gunza 7|
Supanye 7^
Schamacz 12^
Brood 5
Swinar 8
AltGradisca..l2
Jessenovacz . . . 5£
Puska 7|
Lonya S£
Czaprak l|
Sissek 2
Pass the night.
An island.
The ancient Syrmium.
7 floating mills.
Pass the night.
10 Aust, 2 Bos mills.
Junction of the Bosna.
Pass the night.
Junction of the Verbas.
Austrian fortress.
Junction of the Unna.
Pass the night.
Retarded by a fog.
Enter the Kulpa.
Termination of the
Voyage.
L L 2
51G
CROATIAN BORDERERS.
lord introduced an officer of the Borderers, who
having heard that two Englishmen had arrived in
Karlstadt, and being himself of English descent, wish-
ed to see them. His name was Samson, and we found
him a very good-tempered agreeable acquaintance.
He spoke of the Borderers with all the enthusiasm
a good officer might be supposed to feel for his men.
Those of the Croatian frontiers, he said, though not
such fine large men as those of the Banat, were very
clever in the use of their weapons, to which they
DESCENT.
Date of Departure.
Place and Hour of Arrival.
Remarks.
Sissek, llth Sept.
8^ A.M.
Jessenovacz...
3 A.M.
Pass the night, and
take in wood.
Jessenovacz,
12th Sept.
5 A.M.
Alt Gradisca .
Jaroge
84
The Save very narrow.
Pass the night.
Jaroge,
13th Sept.
4| A.M.
Topola, 14th Sept.
5\ A.M.
Supanye
Mitrovitz
Topola
8
4J
5}
Brisk salute.
Take in wood.
Pass the night.
Termination of the
Voyage.
Semlin
The voyage was perfectly satisfactory; and there seems no
reason for apprehending interruption to the navigation, either
from want of water in summer or floating ice in winter, as the
experiment has been made during the driest month of the year ;
and the frosts of winter last only from the beginning of January
to the beginning of February. The first day's voyage passed off
without incident. On the 7th, when approaching Mitrovitz, the
Save was narrow and deep, and the vessel for some time ascended
very slowly. This town will become the point of embarkation
CROATIAN BORDERERS. 517
were accustomed from their childhood. In such
constant danger are they from incursions from the
Turkish Croatians and Bosnians, that they never go
out to tend their sheep, or even to plough, without
being armed. As might be expected, they become
better soldiers than agriculturists. On pressing our
for the famous Schiller, or red Syrmian wine, which is by many
thought equal to Tokay. On the forenoon of the 8th, especial
circumspection became requisite, as at Wuchijak, a place between
Supanye and Schamacz, the river became broad and shallow,
having two long sand-banks ; but luckily both were got over
without once grounding, and the reception of our smutty Argo-
nauts in the evening at Brood was in the highest degree gratifying.
This is an important Austrian fortress ; a salute was fired on the
occasion, and the natives turned out en masse. The appearance
of these people, with their long shaggy black locks, and their short
black caftan (Gunyacz), was striking. Their language is a curious
mixture of Sclavonic and Latin ; for example, Kakasyte dormirali
— how did you deep ? The vessel was visited by Major-Gen, von
Neumann, the commandant of the fortress, and the evening was
spent in festivity. On the 9th September, two officers of the
fortress accompanied the vessel as far as Alt Gradisca, which is
opposite Berbir, formerly an Austrian tete de pont, but now a
Turkish fortress. A picturesque chain of hills, rising from the
river, rendered this the most agreeable part of the voyage. At
Jessenovacz, nine hujas farther up, the right bank ceases to be
Turkish territory. The town is built of wood ; and, as it stands
on piles, has been sometimes called New Amsterdam. On the
10th, at two o'clock, the boat reached Sissek, and was received
with waving banners, joyous music, and firing of muskets. In the
evening there was a public dinner, when the healths of the Emperor,
the Empress, and the Arch-duke Palatine, were drunk with loud
applause ; and on the llth, accompanied by twenty-three indi-
viduals, the vessel started again on her downward voyage.
Should this experiment be followed up with spirit, the advan-
tages which may flow from it can scarcely be overrated. Tho
518 KARLSTADT.
friend very closely as to the subject of their honesty,
he confessed that they were rather apt to mistake
other people's property for their own, — " not," he
said, " that they steal like those rascally infidels, —
they only take things, just in play, as children do ! "
Karlstadt, he said, was so near the frontier, and
so ill-defended, that a party of Turks might, by
present trade on the Save and Drave is limited to barrel hoops,
staves, firewood, &c., although the country could produce vast
quantities of corn, wine, and iron. It is true, that the central
parts between the two rivers are so thickly wooded, that the old
Hungarian proverb is still applicable, — " Si lupus essem, nollem
alibi quam in Sclavonia lupus esse ; " — but all along the Save,
nature has poured forth her choicest blessings. On questioning
my informant as to the quality of the soil, " fat and black " were
the adjectives he used. It would be out of place to enter into an
examination of those peculiar laws and institutions of Hungary,
which hinder the influx of capital and the developement of the
national resources. I shall, therefore, content myself with re-
marking how curiously the interfering with the laws that regulate
production and distribution, operates in two countries so diiferent
from each other. In England, land intended by nature for pas-
ture, is devoted to the plough ; and in Hungary, millions of acres
of what might be garden ground, are abandoned to swine and
cattle. Sissek is only forty English miles from Karlstadt, between
which and Fiume is the splendid road constructed under the
direction of Baron Bukassawich ; and I am informed that if the
little cataract at Ozuil were blown up, the Kulpa would be navi-
gable to within thirty or forty miles of the sea. As it is, Fiume
may become the port of a great part of Hungary. I find, by the
last returns in the Commercial Gazette, that, in the month of August,
the imports of this place were 227,111 florins ; and the exports,
consisting principally of corn and tobacco, 349,904. Should then
this experiment be properly followed up, the Save will be the great
highway between the Adriatic ports and Sernlin, the Banat, Tran-
sylvania, Szegedin, and all the towns on the Theiss and Maras."
LUDOVICA ROAD. 519
a sudden incursion, pillage and burn it any day.
Government, however, was intending to fortify
it more strongly. He seemed to have a sincere
hatred of his Turkish neighbours, and described
them as a most barbarous, cruel, and rapacious set,
who would be continually at war if they dared.
" I think, however," he observed, " we have quieted
them for a while ; for in return for their last attack,
we followed them home, and burnt one of their
largest villages, containing two hundred houses, to
the ground."
The next day we commenced the passage of the
mountains to Fiume, along the line of the Ludovica-
road. This road was formed by a private company
under the direction of General Vukassovics, but ra-
ther as a patriotic undertaking than as a commercial
speculation. It extends eighteen German, or about
eighty-five English, miles. Nothing can be more
beautifully constructed than it is; there is not a
sudden elevation of any consequence from one end
to the other, and the slopes are so gradual that a
carriage may be driven at a trot up and down them
without danger or difficulty. The body of the road
itself is perhaps a little too arched, but the parapet
walls, drains, water-courses, and bridges, are most
beautifully executed, and maintained in excellent
order.
Our first stage of two posts brought us by gradual
ascents into as wild and mountainous a district as
I ever saw. The stratum is entirely a compact lime-
520 SKRAD.
stone, presenting in many places those vast cauldron-
shaped hollows which are so frequent near Trieste.
We were surprised, on inquiring in German if
anything in the shape of dinner could be got at
the station-house, to be answered in very good
Irish, "Sure there is, your honour, — eggs and bacon
in plenty, and a chicken if your honour 's not in a
hurry." Our respondent, we found, was the daugh-
ter of an Irishman who had served under Napoleon,
and she herself had been many years in General
Count Nugent's family. She had married an Italian
fellow-servant, and Count Nugent had set them up
in this inn, which is situated on a part of his own
estate. We were the first Englishmen she had seen
since her settlement in this place, and how she
managed to make us out by the blue ends of our
noses, which was all that could be seen out of our
fur cloaks, is more than I can guess. She was glad
enough to see us, and did her best to make us
comfortable with such poor means as were within
her power.
We got on as far as Skrad before night, which,
like all the other villages in this district, is a
miserable place. The whole country we passed
through is mere rock and wood ; and though clear-
ing and cultivating might do something towards
improving its dreary aspect, it must ever remain
a very barren district. We passed some long trains
of waggons in the course of the day, chiefly laden
with timber, rags, and some corn, which they were
THE ADRIATIC. 521
conveying to Fiume. Others which we met return-
ing were quite empty.
We ascended still higher in the course of the
second day, not that we could observe it by the
road itself, — for it is so beautifully laid out that the
ascent is quite imperceptible, — but we found the
snow, which had been all melted in the lower re-
gions, still clinging, as we advanced, to the mountain
sides. As we began to descend we were roused
from a doze by a sudden cry from Miklos, of " a
great water ! a great water ! " and starting up, we
found the Adriatic, studded with beautiful islands,
and sprinkled over with fishing-boats, directly be-
neath us. For some moments after his first ex-
clamation, Miklos remained quite silent, from awe
and wonder, till at last he said, " Your Grace, that
must be the Danube again, no other water can be
so large ; and see, there are wild ducks swimming
all about." He could not believe, even when we
told him, that it was the sea he saw, and that
his ducks were large boats, which the distance only
made appear so small.
The descent to Fiume was one succession of beau-
ties, increasing as we advanced. The construc-
tion of this part of the road is exceedingly fine,
quite equal to anything of the kind in Europe. In
one place it has been cut straight through the rocks,
and forms a kind of gateway called the Porta Un-
garica. In the course of the descent, on one side
the road we observed a large plain, completely sur-
522 LUDOVICA ROAD.
rounded by mountains, arid forming a colossal am-
phitheatre. It was in this spot that the Tartars,
after having overrun all Hungary, encamped, and
where they were fallen upon by the people, who had
collected on the mountains round, and cut to pieces.
Eight thousand are said to have remained on the field.
When we had nearly finished the descent, we
came to a barrier, and were desired to show our
passports ; and no sooner did the officer find from
them that we were foreigners, than he demanded a
toll of six shillings and four pence for having passed
over the road. " You ought," he said, " to have
paid at the other end, but the man there probably
mistook you for Hungarian gentlemen, and so let
you pass." We, of course, paid it, and in a few
minutes after rattled over the stones of Fiume, till
we came to a stand before the hotel door.
And while we are settling down there, let us say
a few words as to the prospective advantages of
this road. We have stated, that hitherto it has
been little used, partly on account of the high tolls,
partly from the want of further improvements for
facilitating the navigation of the Save and Kulpa —
but most of all from the want of commerce between
Hungary and other countries. Supposing for a
moment all these drawbacks removed, it still re-
mains a question whether Fiume can ever become
the port of Hungary, and the Ludovica road its
great artery. We doubt if it ever will, though
\ve by no means condemn it to languish for ever
LUDOVICA ROAD. 523
in its present state. The trade of Hungary must
follow the course of the Danube, and find its port
on the shores of the Black Sea. The superior
richness of the country through which the Danube
flows, the ease of transporting heavy goods up and
down a stream of such size, almost without any
land-carriage, the number of its tributary streams,
and the wealth and importance of the towns on its
banks, render this unquestionable. The only diffi-
culty which presents itself is the passage of the Iron
Gates ; and with fifty miles of road for towing or
transport, this will henceforth be of little conse-
quence. It is true, that warehouses are necessary
at Scala Gladova, Orsova, and Moldova ; that a con-
sular agent ought to be stationed at Orsova; that,
in fact, many arrangements are required to render
commercial intercourse perfectly easy and conve-
nient ; but, sooner or later, they will be made, for
by this route alone can a great commerce ever
be carried on. At the same time Croatia and
Sclavonia may transport a part of their timber,
hemp, rags, and tallow by Fiume, and receive in
return the manufactures of the west. But there
is another light in which, in the present aspect of
European affairs, this road may be regarded. At
every moment we hear of tremendous armaments,
on the part of Russia, collecting in Bessarabia and
along the banks of the Danube ; of great fleets
manoeuvring in the Black Sea, ready in a moment
to overwhelm the dependencies of Turkey, but
524 LUDOVICA ROAD.
intended, probably, only to frighten European diplo-
matists into the belief that she could do so. Sup-
pose, for a moment, that these troops had marched,
and these vessels had sailed ; suppose even that the
Dardanelles were closed to our fleet ; what means
does this road afford to Austria of controlling the
fate of Turkey ? Austria, on the first alarm, could
throw a body of troops into Transylvania and along
the Wallachian frontiers, where they would occupy
a position confessedly impregnable. She could then
admit through Fiume a French or English army
which, after a march of eighty miles over the Ludo-
vica road, could be placed on board the large
corn-boats on the Kulpa or Save, and transported
without fatigue or loss down the Danube into the
heart of Wallachia in about ten days. She would
thus have placed an overwhelming force in the rear
of the Russian army, with the power of intercepting,
in winter, when the ports of the Black Sea are
frozen, the only route by which that army could
receive supplies. In this point of view the Ludovica
road may still be of European importance. It is
well known too that we are dependent on Russia for
a vast quantity of raw produce, without which our
trade could not get on. As we shall see hereafter,
these articles can be furnished as well by Hungary,
and by the Fiume road they could always reach the
Mediterranean in spite of Russia.
On presenting our letters of introduction, we
were very politely received by the deputy-governor,
FIUME. 525
Count Almasi, and everything worth seeing at Fiume
was at once laid open to us. In truth, the sights of
Fiume are no great matters. It is a pretty little
seaport town, with a good harbour; but, although
possessing the advantages of a free port, it was un-
tenanted by a single vessel of any size. Nothing
can be more beautiful than the situation of Fiume;
it is backed by immense rocks, the sides of which
are covered, wherever a particle of soil can rest,
with vineyards ; while in front is the Adriatic and
its lovely islands. The town has quite an Italian
air about it, and nothing but Italian and Illyrian is
heard in the shops and streets. Fiume has a club
and theatre, and the social life of its inhabitants is
said to be pleasant enough. It has a little semi-
diplomatic society, too, of consuls, to which we
were introduced, and from some of the consuls we
obtained a good deal of information. It had formerly
a very extensive sugar refinery, occupying one thou-
sand persons ; but, as it had originally been created
by a royal privilege, so it was destroyed when the
privilege was withdrawn. The only productive in-
dustry at present existing, is thn paper-mill of
our countrymen, Messrs. Smith & Co. We visited
their mill, which is placed near the end of the
Ludovica road, and is worked by the torrent which
rushes down from the mountain. Mr. Smith told
us that they employed about two hundred and fifty
people, who worked pretty well, and were easily kept
in order, and that every day they were obliged to
526 TRADE OF FIUME.
refuse applications for work. All their machinery
is brought direct from England. They produce a
fair writing paper, though nothing of a very su-
perior character, which is almost entirely consumed
in the Levant.
About a mile or two south of the town, a large
Lazaretto has been built, in one of the most beau-
tiful bays I almost ever saw. They say the arrange-
ments of this Lazaretto are perfect — there is nothing
wanting but ships to fill it. Ten miles still further
south, is Porto Re, a large and commodious harbour,
built by Charles VI., and acknowledged to be the
safest and best in the Austrian dominions. A
war- steamer had just been built there. The small
portion of sea-coast between Istria and Dalmatia,
has often figured in the gravamina of the Hungarian
Diet as the Litorale. For a long time Austria re-
fused to give it up ; and though she has yielded
with respect to this part, Dalmatia and the islands,
equally demanded by the Hungarians as a" portion
of their dominions, are still refused to them.
We have met a stout liberal here, who is at the
same time a Sclave and a strong supporter of the
Sclavish nationality. He speaks with great admir-
ation of the talent with which Napoleon seized on
this point when he formed his kingdom of Illyria,
and the power that this idea still exercises over the
minds of the people. Dalmatia he describes as an
exceedingly interesting country, though the people
are in a very wild and savage state. If we had had
SMUGGLING. 527
time, we should have liked to have accepted this
gentleman's offer to show us the most important
parts of Dalmatia: but the steamer was to leave
Trieste in a few days, and Pola and its amphitheatre
had still to be seen.
The commerce of Fiume is said to be very insigni-
ficant, and to be confined almost exclusively to rags,
staves, corn, and tobacco. Of late years the corn
trade has fallen off considerably, the Odessa mer-
chants having, from their facilities for trade, been
enabled to undersell the Fiume merchants, not only
in the ports of Italy, but sometimes even in Fiume
itself. The best part of the Fiume trade is with the
smugglers ; and smuggling is so far recognised, that
an Englishman, who set up to trade here in an
honest manner, received a friendly warning from
high authority to imitate his neighbours, if he did
riot wish to be ruined. As Fiume itself is a free port,
of course it is surrounded on every side by custom-
house officers, who are so numerous, for this place
alone, as to cost sixty thousand florins (6000/.) per
annum. Not that they are of any use ; for, as one
of the authorities observed, " ten pence a day is all
they get for doing their duty, and, of course, twenty
pence will easily induce them to neglect it." The
coast, too, is of so mountainous a character, that
it would be almost impossible to protect it, except
by introducing a more liberal commercial system.
And now, before we close these volumes, — for at
Fiume our Travels in Hungary may be said to have
528 PRODUCTIONS OF HUNGARY.
finished, and Pola and Trieste are too well known
to require description, — we must say a few words
on the commercial resources and prospects of
Hungary. It is so singular a fact that a coun-
try overflowing with natural productions, and in
want of every article of manufactured industry,
should be quite unknown to the merchants of Eng-
land, that some explanation of it seems required.
In the first place, we shall enumerate the chief
productions of Hungary, and shall then endeavour
to show why these have not been sought for by the
English, and point out what the chief advantages
are which we might derive from a trade with
Hungary.
Hungary and Transylvania, — for we shall now
speak of the two together, — with a population of
twelve millions, occupy a surface of about one
hundred and ten thousand English square miles.
This surface is exceedingly various in its nature,
but on the whole it may be set down as one of
the most fruitful portions of Europe, as well as
one of the most rich in natural productions.
We have already said so much of mines and
mining, that it is scarcely necessary to state here
how extensive the veins of gold and silver are
which run through the whole country. It has been
stated by Beudant, that there is more gold and
silver found in Hungary than in all the rest of
Europe besides. The privilege of working the
mines is open to every one on the payment of a
METALS AND MINERALS. 529
tenth of the produce to the Crown; the only other
restriction being the obligation to have the pre-
cious metals coined in the country, for which a
small per-centage is charged. From the number
of places in which we have seen iron hammers, it
must be evident that iron abounds throughout
extensive districts; but hitherto the iron mines
have been very badly worked, and the iron so ill-
wrought as to be extremely dear. For the erec-
tion of the new chain-bridge at Pest, it has been
found cheaper to have the iron-work cast in
England, sent by water to Fiume or Trieste, and
from thence by land to Pest, than to have it ma-
nufactured either in Hungary or in any other part
of the Austrian dominions. Such is the advantage
which commercial habits and scientific knowledge
give over cheap labour. I have heard it stated
that the iron of Hungary possesses qualities superior
to that of any other part of Europe, except Sweden,
for conversion into steel ; yet it is so badly wrought
that worse cutlery cannot exist than that of Hun-
gary. Hungarian iron is quite unknown in the
English market.
Copper is found in great abundance — forty thou-
sand hundred-weight yearly. Lead, and indeed
every other metal, is obtained, but rather more
sparingly. Sulphur occurs in eight different coun-
ties ; but it is often not worked from the want of
demand for the article ; I have myself seen mines
given up from no other cause. This is of import-
VOL. II. M M
530 TIMBER.
ance at the present moment when the Sicilian
monopoly is in the hands of Frenchmen, who are
said to have raised the price of their sulphur, and
thereby inflicted a considerable injury on many
branches of English industry.
The quantity of salt which these countries can
produce seems quite unlimited; and from the fine
condition of the mines, the pure state in which the
salt occurs, and the position of the beds near navi-
gable rivers, it might be procured as cheaply as
from any part of the world. Soda, alum, potash,
and saltpetre, are all abundant, but particularly
soda, which occurs in great purity and plenty on
the plain near Debreczen.
Coal, as I have already said, is found in several
districts, and I believe it is the only coal in Europe
which can contest the field with that of England
for the use of steam-engines. That it is at present
as dear as English coal imported via Constantinople
is entirely attributable to bad, or rather dishonest,
management.
Of wood, Hungary, and the neighbouring coun-
tries, Bosnia and Servia, are capable of furnishing
vast stores. At present, England receives a large
portion of her timber from the Baltic, which might
be as well obtained from these countries, by Fiume
or the Black Sea, and the navy of England would
then be no longer dependent for its supply on the
country which is most likely to place itself in rival-
ship with her. The forests of Hungary, particularly
TIMBER. — HEMP. 531
the Bakonyer, are almost entirely composed of oak,
which is of two kinds, — the red, a quick-growing
soft wood, of little use except for firing; and the
white, a firm lasting timber, well adapted for ship-
building, or other purposes requiring durability.
In those parts of the country where the roads are
too bad to allow of the transport of large blocks
of timber, the wood might be cut into staves, for
which there is always a great demand, and so con-
veyed to the coast in smaller loads for exportation.
A considerable trade is already carried on in this
article between Fiume and Marseilles, most of the
staves being procured from Bosnia and brought by
land-carriage to Fiume. The opening of the Save
and Drave would considerably reduce the cost of
carriage, and wood might then be transported,
nearly the whole way, by water to the Black Sea.
Another article connected with our shipping in-
terest, to which we have already alluded, is hemp.
All the hemp used in the navy is of Russian growth,
and it is one of the chief of our imports from that
country. The hemp of Hungary is both cheaper
and better; and instead of taking it from a rival,
we should take it from a safe ally.*
Hides and tallow are also articles of Russian
* Some months since, I heard that a part of the navy contract
was to be given to Baron Eskeles of Vienna for a supply of Hun-
garian hemp, but I am not aware that the arrangements are yet
concluded. No exertions ought to be spared either by Austria
or England to carry them out.
M M 2
532 WINES.
commerce, in which Hungary might prove a for-
midable rival.
Of the Hungarian tobacco we have spoken at
length elsewhere. Although the tobacco of Hun-
gary is an article which, from the peculiar position
in which we stand with respect to our Colonies, can
scarcely gain a footing in the English market ; yet it
is one which the German and Italian merchants would
gladly avail themselves of, if they were allowed.
Horse-hair, bristles, gall-nuts, and rags, are all
articles of Hungarian commerce ; and of the latter
very large exportations to this country already take
place annually.
Spirits of wine are produced at a low rate, and
are exported to Germany.
It is always a difficult matter to decide how far
any wine will suit a particular market ; but I have
a strong suspicion that a really good wine will suit
all ; and, if I may trust my own taste, I should
say that much of the Hungarian wine deserves
that character. Hungarian wines may be divided
into two classes, the sweet wines, or Ausbrucli, and
the red and white table wines. The most cele-
brated of the sweet wines is that of Tokay, which
for delicacy of flavour and brightness of colour is
unequalled. Next to Tokay comes the M£nes
wine, but though rich and strong, it has a coarse
taste when compared with Tokay. Among the best
dessert wines, after these, are reckoned those of
Ruszt, Karlowitz, St. Georg, and (Edenburg. These
WINES. 533
wines are commonly drunk only in very small quan-
tities, a glass or two taken with the sweets being
the extreme. As there is so very little taste for
sweet wines in England, I doubt if these wines
would find any great number of admirers amongst
us, at least until our habits are changed.
Of the table wines it is difficult to give any de-
scription, they are so numerous and so little known.
The wines of Buda (Offner in German) and Erlau,
are those I prefer of the red wines ; indeed, I
think I have drunk old Buda equal to the best
Burgundy. Those of Posing, St. Georg, Sexo,
Miskolcz, Neustadt, and many others, are cele-
brated, but I cannot recollect them sufficiently to
speak of their merits.
Among the white wines, I can answer for those
of Somlyo (Schomlauer in German) and Nesz-
m£ly being equal to any of the white wines of
France (excepting, of course, champagne), and they
are better to my taste than the generality of the
sour products of the Rhine. Others of note are
those of Ratzischdorf, Badacson, Szekszard and
Sirak. Of the Transylvanian wines I have spoken
at sufficient length already. The white wines of
that country are certainly not inferior to those of
Hungary.
The characteristic qualities of the Hungarian
wines are their strength and fire. They almost all
of them require keeping some time before they
come to their prime. It is supposed that of the
534 WOOL.
24,400,000 eimers grown in the country, not more
than 80,000 are exported, and these go almost
exclusively to Silesia, Poland, and Russia. Vienna
consumes also a considerable quantity of Hunga-
rian wine. It was long questioned whether these
wines would bear transporting across the sea, but
Count Sze*chenyi tried the experiment by sending a
cask to the East Indies, and when it came back, it
was found perfectly sound at the end of the voyage.
The addition of a little brandy might be required
by some of the lighter sorts; but with that and
with more care in the preparation of the wine and
the cleaning of the casks, I have no doubt they
would be perfectly safe.
Wool is at present one of the chief articles of
Hungarian commerce, chiefly because its exporta-
tion is un taxed. It is scarcely twenty years since
the Merino sheep have been introduced into Hun-
gary, and the quantity of fine wool now produced
may be judged from the fact, that at the last Pest fair
there were no less than 80,000 centners offered for
sale. The greater part of this wool is bought by the
German merchants, and much of it is said to go
ultimately to England, after having passed by land
quite across Europe to Hamburg. Of late years, a
few English merchants have made their appearance
at the Pest fairs, which are held four times in the
year ; but I have not yet heard of any wool being
sent to England by the Danube and Black Sea.
Besides the Merino wool, there is a considerable
CORN. 535
quantity of a long coarse wool grown, which is
chiefly sold for the manufacture of the thick white
cloth worn by the peasants, and which might be
found very serviceable for our carpet fabrics.
A still more important article of Hungarian
produce is corn, and it is one from which, it is
to be hoped, England ere long, by the abolition
of her corn laws, will enable herself to derive the
full benefit. At present, the quantity of grain
annually produced in Hungary is reckoned at
from sixty to eighty millions of Presburg metzen.
This calculation, however, is of little importance,
as at present scarcely any is grown for export-
ation ; but, were a market once opened, it is be-
yond a doubt that the produce might be doubled
or trebled without any difficulty. I have heard
it stated by one well able to judge, that at the
present time one quarter of the whole country
is uncultivated, although the greater part of it
is capable of furnishing the richest crops at a
very slight cost. The wheat of Hungary is al-
lowed to be of an excellent quality. Where the
land has little or no value for other purposes,
and the labour costs nothing, it is difficult to
see how it can be produced anywhere at a cheaper
rate than here.* Nor do I think an increased
demand would materially raise the price to the
* In an article in a late number of the British and Foreign
Quarterly, it is stated that Hungarian wheat from Fiume can
be brought to England at a lower rate than from any other
536 CORN.
foreign consumer ; as improvements in the art
of cultivation, greater industry on the part of the
country. I quote the statement as it stands, without being able
however to vouch for its accuracy : —
" The price of Hungarian wheat fit for shipment ) fl. kr. s. d.
to England is at present, per metzen, at Sissek . j 2 45 or 5 6
N.B. At other times it is 30 or 40 per cent, less.)
Expense of transport from Sissek to Karlstadt by ) Q ] Q or Q 4
the river Kulpa J
Expense of transport from Karlstadt to Fiume by 1 o 50 or 1 8
land j
3 45 or 7 6
" Hence we find, that the price of Hungarian corn at Fiume is
3 florins, 45 kreutzers, or 7s. Qd. sterling per metzen. Now,
2 metzen are considered equal to 3 stajo or staro, Venetian or
Trieste measure j hence we find that the cost of Hungarian corn
per stajo is 5 florins, or 10s. ; the rate of freight from Fiume to
Trieste by sea is 7 kreutzers, or 2%d. ; the whole cost, therefore, at
Trieste, is 5 florins, 7 kreutzers, or 10s. 2%d. : 348 stajo, however,
are considered equal to 100 imperial quarters, according to which
estimation the price of corn at Trieste, per imperial quarter, is
35s. 7J -fgd.
" To this calculation must be added,
For the several commissions at Sissek, Karlstadt, and
Fiume 5 per cent.
For waste, deterioration, uninsured risk, insurance 3 per cent.
Rate of insurance from Trieste to England . . 1| per cent.
Export duty from the Austrian dominions, or Hun-
gary, to the district of a free port, or to a foreign
country 9^ per cent.
Amount of commission del credere . . . 3£ per cent.
Charges and expenses on shipping . . .2 per cent.
The uninsured risk, heating, short weight, deteriora-
tion on the voyage from Trieste to England . 1 per cent.
The whole per centage, as above detailed, is equal
to 24£ per cent.
CORN. 537
cultivators, and increased facilities in the means
of communication, would be sufficient to raise the
profits of the grower without increasing the cost
to the consumer.
No corn-growing country has such means of com-
munication prepared by nature as Hungary, and
it requires only a demand for her productions to
bring them into full use. The richest parts of the
country are the Banat, the plains on either side
the Theiss, the country north of the Maros, and
the districts about the Save and Drave. Now every
Now 24| per cent, upon 35s. 7d. is 8s. 8|§^d ; leaving out the
fraction, the price of Hungarian corn per quarter is 44s. 3d. : add
8s., which is about the average freight to England, the cost of
Hungarian corn to the English merchant is 52s. 3d.
" It must be remembered, however, that the price of the corn at
Sissek (the principal depot for corn collected from the country, or
brought by the Save from New Becse, where considerable pur-
chases are made), upon which we have based our calculation, was
taken at the present high average, though it is sometimes 40 per
cent, lower. If, then, we had adopted the lowest instead of the
highest rate for the stajo at Sissek, the final result would have
been more than 3s. lower ; let us now adopt a mean average
between 49s. and 52s. 3d., it will give 50s. 1\d. The following,
then, is the result of the previous calculations : the price in Eng-
land of corn imported,
s. d.
from France is 52 3
America .... 50 0
Odessa 52 0
Hamburgh ... 54 4£
Dantzic 52 6
Lower Baltic . . • 51 5
Hungary 50 7£"
538 IMPEDIMENTS TO COMMERCE.
one of these rivers is navigable, so that it is im-
possible to conceive a country placed under more
favourable circumstances than Hungary.
The causes which have hitherto prevented a
country so rich in productions, and possessing these
advantages, from reaping the rich fruits of foreign
commerce, must next be considered.
One of the most important of these we believe
to be, the restrictive laws arbitrarily imposed on
Hungary by Austria. Hungary has the right to
tax herself, but from time immemorial the king
has enjoyed the privilege of imposing a duty called,
from its amount, Vigesima Regalis (the King's
twentieth), or five per cent, on articles imported
into, and exported from Hungary. Soon after the
accession of the house of Hapsburg, however, at-
tempts were made to change this into a system
of indirect taxation ; attempts which, despite the
complaints of the nation, have been persevered in
ever since. But the most tremendous blow to com-
merce was given by Joseph, who entertained the
idea of forcing the country to manufacture for it-
self,— by the imposition of a duty of sixty per cent,
on all foreign articles. Even then none but a noble
was allowed to import, and he only on the under-
standing that the articles imported were for his
own use. Of course, this regulation was evaded
either by the merchant's purchasing nobility, or
by some noble lending his name to a merchant
for the same purpose.
RECENT IMPROVEMENTS. 539
Although the same amount of duty was not
levied on all articles exported, yet as exchange is
absolutely necessary for the prosperity of com-
merce, its effects were equally disadvantageous as
regards exports. On some articles, however, the
export duty was much higher than sixty per cent. ;
and the Hungarians soon perceived that if, not-
withstanding these obstacles, a market was, from
some peculiar profit to be derived from it, found
for their produce, the Government was sure to
step in, and to impose so heavy a burthen as to
destroy it in a very short time. The constant
changes, too, which were made in the tariff, ren-
dered trade so uncertain, that no one could be
induced to cultivate, or speculate, where an arbi-
trary act of an irresponsible minister might at once
change the whole circumstances on which his
calculations must be founded. The end of all this
has been two national bankruptcies, the destruction
of all commerce from without, and of all energy
and enterprise within, an empty exchequer, and a
people almost in a state of barbarism.
At last Austria appears to Lave opened her
eyes to some of her errors. Thanks to Mr. Mac-
gregor's plain straightforward exposition of the
frauds and losses to which her present system
exposes her, she has at last consented to revise
her tariff, and to change it where possible. Un-
happily, however, that is no such easy task. She
is surrounded by swarms of leeches in the shape
540 IMPEDIMENTS TO COMMERCE.
of contractors, collectors, and rogues of every kind
and class, who have long lived on the corruptions
of the system, and who now cling to it so firmly,
that it is a life-struggle to shake them from their
hold. Manufactures, too, have been encouraged
under this false system, and now claim protec-
tion and support from those who have hitherto
fostered them.* Still a change has been begun.
Every man can now import and export for the
purposes of trade, be he of what class he may.
Absolute prohibition can scarcely any longer be
said to exist, and the duties on upwards of a
hundred articles of commerce have been materially
reduced.
Still all this has reference to Austria in general,
not to Hungary in particular, and there are many
circumstances peculiar to the latter country which
demand separate legislation. The export duties
on Hungarian produce, even into Austria, remain
as before. But even these obstructions, serious
as they are, and deeply as it behoves Hungary to
struggle for their removal, are still light compared
with others, dependent on the Hungarians them-
selves. I allude to the peculiar state of the Hun-
garian laws affecting credit. Without entering
* I have heard, however, that some of the manufacturers of
Vienna were exceedingly ready to aid Mr. Macgregor in opening
trade, declaring that they could compete better with the fair
trader on a moderate duty, than with the smuggler on none
at all.
IMPEDIMENTS TO COMMERCE. 541
into these, many of which have been alluded to
before at some length, I shall only here enumerate
one or two of the more important.
The law by which the absolute alienation of
property is rendered impracticable, while at the
same time it is allowed to load it with debt, is
one of the most injurious. In consequence of this
law it becomes impossible to give good security,
and the price of money is therefore exorbitant.
The enforcement of a contract against a noble, too,
is rendered so difficult an
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